Selection of IBDP History Internal Assessments and Extended Essays

For over a quarter century, I've had the privilege of guiding students through the rigorous International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, teaching History, Geography, English and Theory of Knowledge. Throughout that time, I've witnessed countless students rise to the challenge, producing truly exceptional work that demonstrates deep conceptual understanding, critical thinking, and sophisticated research skills. Now, I'm making a curated selection of these outstanding Internal Assessments (IAs) and Extended Essays (EEs) available for free. This collection represents a significant portion of my teaching career and embodies the very best of what IB History students can achieve. It's a testament to the power of inquiry-based learning, meticulous research, and the development of a nuanced historical perspective. I believe these examples will serve as invaluable resources for current and future IB History students, teachers, and anyone with a passion for historical exploration.The IAs and EEs in this collection are not merely "passing" examples. They represent the upper echelon of student achievement, consistently earning high marks and demonstrating compelling and well-defined historical questions, often exploring niche topics or offering fresh perspectives on established debates; a sophisticated understanding of source criticism, going beyond surface-level analysis to uncover the nuances and biases of their chosen sources; well-structured and persuasive arguments; and a thorough grasp of the relevant historical context and historiography, placing their research within broader historical narratives.

This collection is designed to be a valuable resource for:

• IB History Students: Use these examples as models for your own IAs and EEs. Study the structure, the research methodologies, the source analysis techniques, and the argumentation styles. However, remember that plagiarism is a serious offence. These examples are for inspiration and guidance, not for copying.
• IB History Teachers: Use these examples to illustrate best practices to your students, to provide a benchmark for assessment, and to gain insights into successful student approaches.
• Anyone Interested in History: These essays offer fascinating insights into a wide range of historical topics, showcasing the power of historical inquiry and the depth of understanding that can be achieved through rigorous research.

I sincerely hope that this collection of student work proves to be a valuable resource for you. It is a testament to the dedication and intellectual curiosity of the many students I've had the privilege of teaching over the years.

Collection of students' IBDP History Internal Assessments and Extended Essays over the past quarter century:

 The desecration of the Hermai, a series of stone sculptures in ancient Athens, remains a topic of historical intrigue and debate. These herm statues, typically depicting the head of the god Hermes atop an erect penis, were widely placed throughout the city. In 415 BCE just before the Athenian expedition to Sicily, numerous Hermai were vandalised overnight. This incident struck at the heart of Athenian religious and communal identity, and its motive was shrouded in suspicion. The Athenians feared a conspiracy linked to internal political factions or even foreign influence. The event led to a climate of paranoia, resulting in a series of trials and executions, including that of the prominent philosopher Socrates, who was accused of impiety and corruption of the youth. Although the culprits were never conclusively identified, some historical sources suggest the involvement of Alcibiades, a leading figure in the expedition, who may have been implicated to undermine his political position; this IA considers screaming feminists were really to blame. 

The historical debate surrounding whether developments in Roman politics led to the disaster at Cannae centres on differing interpretations of Rome's leadership, military strategy, and internal divisions. Scholars such as Polybius argue that Rome's defeat stemmed from poor tactical decisions and political rivalries, whilst others highlight systemic flaws in Rome's political structures, including the rotation of consuls and competing authority, which hampered consistent military strategy. Additionally, historians debate whether Roman arrogance and overconfidence, fostered by earlier victories, contributed significantly to the catastrophic defeat. Ultimately, the debate emphasizes the complex interplay of political dynamics, leadership choices, and structural weaknesses influencing Rome's disastrous loss at Cannae.

This Internal Assessment on the site of the Roman defeat at Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD centres on reconciling ancient accounts with archaeological evidence. Traditional 16th-century scholarship, influenced by Tacitus’s term “saltus Teutoburgiensis,” located the battle near Detmold, but vague geographical descriptions in Roman sources like Cassius Dio fostered uncertainty. In the late 20th century, excavations at Kalkriese uncovered military artefacts—coins, weaponry, and human remains—suggesting it as the true site. Whilst most scholars now favour Kalkriese, some contend that the battle spanned multiple locations, maintaining Detmold’s relevance. This discourse underscores methodological challenges in correlating textual and material evidence in ancient military history.

The historical debate concerning the veracity of a mass suicide at Masada revolves around the veracity of Josephus Flavius's account, a first-century historian, who chronicled the event. Josephus posited that, in the year 73 AD, Jewish Sicarii defenders, besieged by Roman legions, opted for collective suicide rather than capitulation. This narrative has been scrutinised by contemporary scholars who question the plausibility and the absence of corroborative archaeological evidence. Critics argue that Josephus's account may have been influenced by his own political agenda and the exigencies of the time. Furthermore, the lack of skeletal remains and the ambiguous nature of the artefacts discovered at the site have fuelled conjecture. The debate, therefore, pivots on the credibility of Josephus's testimony, the interpretation of archaeological findings, and the broader socio-political context of the period.

This student's question "To what extent did William’s Feigned-Retreat Tactics determine his victory in the Battle of Hastings?" proved to be excellent IBDP History Internal Assessment topic because it encouraged critical analysis of a pivotal historical event, allowing for an in-depth evaluation of military strategy, causation, and the interplay of multiple factors in William’s victory, such as leadership, morale, and Harold’s decisions. The question’s focus on "extent" allowed him to offer nuanced argumentation, requiring him to weigh the tactic’s significance against other elements. Additionally, it drew on diverse primary and secondary sources, fostering historiographical debate and meeting the IBDP’s emphasis on analytical rigour and historical inquiry.

The historical debate surrounding the motivations behind the First Crusade (1095–1099) centres on the interplay of religious, political, and economic factors. Traditional interpretations, such as those of Erdmann, emphasise religious zeal, viewing the Crusade as a pious response to Pope Urban II’s call to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim control, driven by the promise of spiritual salvation. Conversely, revisionist historians, including Riley-Smith, argue that material incentives, such as land acquisition and economic gain, were significant motivators, particularly for secular nobles. More recent scholarship suggests a complex synthesis, acknowledging the coexistence of genuine faith, feudal ambitions, and socio-economic pressures within a fragmented mediæval European society.

Who Killed the Princes in the Tower? The fate of Princes Edward V and Richard of Shrewsbury, remains one of English history’s most enduring mysteries. Following their father Edward IV’s death in 1483, the young princes were declared illegitimate and placed in the Tower of London under the protection of their uncle, Richard III. They were never seen again, sparking widespread speculation about their disappearance. Whilst many historians attribute their presumed murder to Richard III, others suggest alternative culprits, such as Henry VII, who defeated Richard at Bosworth in 1485. Despite extensive debate, conclusive evidence remains elusive, leaving the question unresolved.

A mixture of the IBDP's Language A and History courses, this Extended Essay received an 'A' for investigating Luther's linguistic prowess to reveal scholarly consensus regarding its pivotal role in Reformation advancement. Academics emphasise Luther's vernacular Bible translation as revolutionary, democratising scriptural access whilst establishing standardised German. His rhetorical strategies—employing accessible vocabulary, vivid metaphors and polemical vigour—effectively disseminated theological concepts across social strata. Historians note Luther's strategic utilisation of printing technology amplified his linguistic influence exponentially. Recent scholarship has further examined his pamphlets, hymns and correspondence as complementary vehicles for reformist ideas. The historiographical trajectory acknowledges Luther's linguistic innovations not merely as communicative tools, but as fundamental catalysts transforming religious discourse throughout sixteenth-century Europe.

The authenticity of the Glasgow Letter, allegedly written by Mary, Queen of Scots, has sparked considerable historiographical debate. Traditional historians, relying on contemporaneous accounts and the letter's content, have often attributed it to Mary, using it to support narratives of her culpability in the murder of her husband, Lord Darnley. Conversely, revisionist scholars have challenged this interpretation, citing inconsistencies in handwriting, linguistic style, and political motivation. They argue that the letter may have been forged to implicate Mary, casting doubt on its validity as historical evidence. This internal assessment highlights the complexities of interpreting primary sources and the influence of bias in historical narratives.

Did Cromwell and the New Model Army targeted civilians during the 1649 Siege of Drogheda? The study evaluates two key sources: Tom Reilly’s Cromwell Was Framed, which argues no civilians were killed, and Thomas Wood’s 1772 eyewitness account, detailing the siege’s brutality. Reilly’s book, by a local Drogheda historian, uses primary sources but lacks structure and may dismiss conflicting evidence. Wood’s account, potentially biased due to Royalist editing, vividly describes civilian deaths, though its reliability is questioned. The investigation examines Cromwell’s orders, reports to Parliament, and accounts like Dean Bernard’s, suggesting civilian targeting despite Reilly’s claims of stable post-siege population. Historians like Michéal Ó Siochrú support civilian casualties, citing Cromwell’s and Hugh Peter’s reports. This IA highlights challenges in source reliability and bias, concluding Cromwell likely targeted civilians, aligning with traditional views despite Reilly’s counterarguments.

One of the first Extended Essays I supervised, this considers the historiography of Captain James Cook’s legacy in Hawaii where he was tragically killed. Those recognising British Enlightenment values, celebrate Cook as a pioneering navigator and scientist whose voyages advanced geographical and anthropological knowledge. This paper acknowledges his portrayal as a scapegoat for subsequent colonial injustices as anachronistic, projecting modern ideological biases onto 18th-century contexts. Conservative analyses argue that blaming Cook overlooks the agency of Hawaiian leaders and the complex socio-political dynamics of the period, instead honouring his contributions to exploration whilst acknowledging the inevitability of cross-cultural encounters in his era.

How accurate is Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables? A work of historical fiction that, whilst rooted in the socio-political context of 19th-century France, prioritises dramatic narrative over strict historical accuracy, the novel vividly portrays the June Rebellion of 1832, the plight of the urban poor, and the injustices of the penal system, drawing on real events and conditions. However, Hugo often embellishes or simplifies historical details to enhance thematic depth, such as the exaggerated depiction of barricades or the idealised portrayal of revolutionary figures. Thus, whilst the novel captures the spirit of its era, it should not be regarded as a precise historical record.

How far did the Whig government’s economic policies during the Irish Potato Famine (1845–1852) exacerbate the crisis? Adhering to laissez-faire principles, the Whigs, under Lord John Russell, prioritised minimal state intervention, relying on market mechanisms to address food shortages. This approach delayed effective relief measures, as policies such as the repeal of the Corn Laws failed to alleviate immediate distress, whilst public works schemes were inadequately funded and poorly implemented. Critics argue that this ideological commitment to free trade and limited government culpably worsened the famine’s impact, though defenders contend that systemic economic constraints and administrative challenges also played significant roles. 

A veritable tour de force by my student who received an 'A' for this Extended Essay and a '7' for the History course itself, this investigation into Ludwig II's demise, revealing persistent scholarly contention. Traditional narratives, established by the 1886 official inquest, maintained suicide by drowning, citing the monarch's supposed mental instability. However, revisionist historians have scrutinised inconsistencies in medical reports and witness testimonies, proposing alternative theories of assassination. Some scholars suggest political motivations, noting Bavarian ministers' concerns regarding Ludwig's financial extravagance and governmental disengagement. Forensic re-examinations have highlighted suspicious elements, including unexplained injuries and the absence of water in the king's lungs. Despite extensive archival research, conclusive evidence remains elusive, leaving the circumstances of Ludwig's death an enduring historical enigma that continues to provoke scholarly debate.

The question of whether Aaron Kosminski was Jack the Ripper remains a contested topic within historical and criminological circles.  Modern DNA analysis of a shawl, purportedly found at the scene of one of the murders and linked to Catherine Eddowes, has identified mitochondrial DNA matching that of Kosminski’s descendants. This evidence is presented as strong indication of his culpability. However, considerable debate persists regarding the shawl’s authenticity, its chain of custody, and the definitive nature of mitochondrial DNA in this context. Therefore, whilst Kosminski is a prominent suspect, conclusive proof establishing him unequivocally as Jack the Ripper is still considered by many to be absent. 

 

 This Extended Essay compares Tsars Alexander II (1855–1881) and Alexander III (1881–1894), centering on their contrasting approaches to governance and reform as often seen in Paper 3 exams. Traditional scholarship characterises Alexander II as a “reforming tsar” for emancipating the serfs and modernising institutions, though critiques note his reluctance to curb autocratic power. Alexander III, by contrast, is framed as a reactionary, reversing liberal policies to enforce repression, Russification, and orthodoxy. Soviet historiography often dismissed both as upholders of bourgeois autocracy, whilst post-Soviet analyses highlight Alexander II’s pragmatism amid societal pressures versus Alexander III’s ideological conservatism. Debates persist over whether their policies reflected personal inclinations or responses to external threats, with recent studies emphasising continuity in tsarist objectives despite divergent methods.

 To what extent did the Dreyfus Affair influence Theodor Herzl’s Zionist beliefs? This IA primarily analyses Kornberg’s Theodor Herzl: From Assimilation to Zionism and Herzl’s own diaries. Kornberg’s 1993 book challenges the traditional view that the Dreyfus Affair was the primary catalyst for Herzl’s Zionism, arguing that Herzl exaggerated its impact to bolster his leadership, with anti-Semitism in Austria and Germany being more influential. Herzl’s diaries, while offering insight into his thoughts, lack consistent emphasis on the Dreyfus Affair, focusing more on broader anti-Semitic trends across Europe. The investigation highlights a historiographical divide: traditional views, supported by historians like Alex Bein, emphasise the Affair’s profound impact on Herzl, whilst revisionists like Kornberg argue it was secondary to other factors, such as Austrian political developments. It acknowledges the Affair’s role as a pivotal moment that crystallised Herzl’s awareness of pervasive anti-Semitism, particularly in France but also recognises Herzl’s strategic use of the Affair to advance Zionism. 

Was Emily Davison's death a deliberate act of suicide remains subject to historical debate. On June 4, 1913, during the Epsom Derby, Davison stepped onto the racecourse and was fatally injured by King George V's horse. Some historians argue this act was intentional, citing evidence of her previous militant suffragist activities and willingness to endure personal harm for political attention. Others propose that her death was accidental, highlighting the ambiguity of her intentions and absence of clear evidence indicating suicidal motivations. Despite extensive analysis, the precise nature of Davison's intent continues to fuel scholarly discussion and remains unresolved.

Another Extended Essay scoring an 'A' based on content covered in the class, this concerns how the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 reflects evolving scholarly perspectives on its impact upon Triple Entente cohesion. Traditional interpretations posited that Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina significantly strengthened Anglo-Franco-Russian solidarity through shared diplomatic humiliation. More nuanced scholarship has subsequently identified complex diplomatic repercussions, noting how Russia's reluctant acquiescence created temporary intra-Entente tensions. Recent analyses emphasise the crisis as a catalyst for incremental rather than immediate Entente consolidation, precipitating enhanced military conversations and strategic planning. Historians now generally concur that whilst the crisis did not instantaneously cement the alliance, it contributed substantially to the psychological and diplomatic foundations that would prove crucial during subsequent Balkan confrontations.

To what extent did the Second Reich’s colonial activities in South West Africa influence Nazi ideology? Traditionalist historians, such as Jürgen Zimmerer, argue that these colonial practices, including racial hierarchies and extermination policies, directly shaped Nazi racial ideology and genocidal methods, providing a blueprint for later atrocities. Conversely, revisionist scholars, like Robert Gerwarth, caution against overstating this link, suggesting that whilst there were ideological parallels, Nazi policies were more directly influenced by contemporary European eugenics and post-First World War radicalisation. This Extended Essay which received an 'A' focuses on the continuity of racial policies versus the distinct socio-political contexts driving Nazi ideology.

The question of Mata Hari's guilt remains subject to considerable debate among historians. Accused by French authorities during the First World War of espionage for Germany, she was convicted and executed in 1917. Some scholars argue that evidence against her was circumstantial and influenced heavily by wartime paranoia and sexism, suggesting she was more a scapegoat than a genuine spy. Others contend that, whilst perhaps not a significant espionage figure, Mata Hari did engage in questionable activities, complicating claims of innocence. Given limited documentation and conflicting testimonies, establishing definitive guilt or innocence is challenging, leaving the subject open to ongoing historical interpretation.

Was Captain William Turner culpable for the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915? Critics argue that Turner failed to adhere to Admiralty directives, such as zigzagging to evade submarines, thereby compromising the vessel’s safety. Conversely, defenders contend that the Admiralty’s ambiguous instructions, the presence of munitions aboard the Lusitania, and the unprecedented nature of unrestricted submarine warfare complicated his decisions. Furthermore, Germany’s deliberate targeting of civilian vessels undermined claims of negligence. Whilst some view Turner’s actions as contributory, others emphasise external factors, leaving his culpability unresolved in historical discourse.

The IA explores Winston Churchill’s responsibility for the Gallipoli campaign’s failures in 1915, focusing on his leadership as First Lord of the Admiralty. Key sources include the Dardanelles Commission’s 1917 report and Dan Van Der Vat’s The Dardanelles Disaster, which provide detailed accounts of the campaign’s planning and execution. Churchill initiated the plan to seize Gallipoli to disrupt German alliances and open a second front, but underestimated Ottoman resistance and rushed the operation despite warnings from Admiral Carden. The campaign suffered from inadequate resources, poor planning, and delays, exacerbated by political disagreements and lack of reinforcements. Naval attacks failed, costing ships and lives, and the subsequent land campaign under Ian Hamilton was equally disastrous due to unprepared troops and insufficient support. While Churchill’s overreach and lack of contingency plans were significant, others, including Lord Kitchener, shared responsibility. The Commission highlighted poor planning but avoided definitive blame. Ultimately, Churchill’s pivotal role in the rushed and ill-prepared operation makes him accountable, though not solely responsible, for the Gallipoli disaster.

Scoring an 'A' in many ways thanks to the remarkable generosity of Sir Hew Strachan, currently professor of international relations at the University of St Andrews, who selflessly wrote a lengthy email in reply to this student asking for information. The historiography surrounding Field Marshal Douglas Haig’s role in the Battle of the Somme has been deeply contentious. Early interpretations, notably from wartime propaganda and post-war memoirs, often portrayed Haig as a resolute commander facing insurmountable challenges. However, revisionist historians, such as John Terraine, argued that Haig’s strategy was a necessary, albeit costly, step towards victory, constrained by the technological and tactical limitations of 1916. Conversely, critics, including Basil Liddell Hart, condemned Haig as an inflexible ‘butcher’, highlighting the staggering casualties—over 600,000 Allied losses—as evidence of incompetence. Recent scholarship adopts a more nuanced view, balancing strategic context with moral critique.

This History Extended Essay, exploring the appropriateness of labeling the 1915-17 Armenian killings as genocide is sharply focused, inviting a nuanced evaluation of a complex historical event. Its structure methodically addresses the definition of genocide, historical context, primary and secondary sources, and opposing viewpoints, ensuring a balanced and rigorous analysis. By engaging with primary accounts, such as Henry Morgenthau’s telegrams, and contrasting historians like Bernard Lewis and Norman Stone, it critically assesses the Ottoman government’s intent and actions. The essay’s interdisciplinary approach, combining legal definitions, eyewitness reports, and historiographical debates, aligns perfectly with the IBDP’s emphasis on critical thinking and source evaluation. Its thorough bibliography and clear methodology further demonstrate academic rigour, making it an ideal model for tackling controversial historical issues with depth and objectivity.

Whether T.E. Lawrence, popularly known as Lawrence of Arabia, was raped during his capture at Deraa in 1917 remains a subject of historical debate. Lawrence’s own account in his memoir, Seven Pillars of Wisdom, describes a brutal assault by Ottoman soldiers, though he does not explicitly confirm sexual violence. Some historians argue that cultural and personal reticence may have led him to obscure the full truth, whilst others contend that the ambiguity reflects psychological trauma rather than literal events. This led to an internal assessment that demonstrated a nuanced understanding of the historical context, the reliability of autobiographical narratives, and the evolving definitions of sexual violence. 

The circumstances surrounding Grigori Rasputin’s death in December 1916 remain shrouded in ambiguity, despite a generally accepted narrative. A group of conspirators, including Prince Felix Yusupov and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, lured Rasputin to Yusupov’s palace with the intention of ending his influence over the Tsarina. Accounts detail a protracted and violent struggle involving poisoning, shooting, and ultimately, drowning in the Neva River. Whilst these nobles are widely considered responsible, conflicting testimonies and political motivations suggest a more complex scenario, potentially involving higher authorities seeking to distance themselves from the deed. This IA even posits whether a British secret service agent did the deed.

The historiographical debate surrounding the death of Manfred von Richthofen on April 21, 1918 reveals persistent controversy over whether the fatal shot was fired by Canadian pilot Captain Roy Brown or by Australian ground gunners. Traditional RAF accounts and early histories credited Brown, supported by his combat report and squadron records. Forensic re-examination of the 1918 autopsy by Colonel Sinclair, combined with ballistic analysis, demonstrates that the low-velocity, undeformed bullet and the rising 14–15° trajectory are incompatible with Brown’s position. Revisionist works, notably Carisella and Ryan, together with later studies by Miller and Markham, shift responsibility to the Australian 53rd Battery, initially favouring Gunner Buie because of Sinclair’s (now discredited) deflection theory. Modern consensus, informed by trigonometric reconstruction, eyewitness corroboration of tracer hits, and the greater volume of fire from a belt-fed Vickers gun, identifies Sergeant Cedric Popkin of the 24th Machine-Gun Company as the most probable shooter, illustrating the critical role of medical, ballistic, and positional evidence in overturning long-accepted aerial-victory attributions.

The Aurora cruiser's role in the October Revolution of 1917 is a pivotal, if debated, aspect of the events covered in my IBDP HL lessons. Whilst often depicted as the vanguard of the Bolshevik uprising, the extent of its direct impact is nuanced. The cruiser's crew, primarily sympathetic to the Bolshevik cause, played a symbolic role, firing a blank shot from its forward gun as a signal for the storming of the Winter Palace. Though this act is commonly cited, historians debate whether it was the decisive trigger, or rather a symbolic gesture within a broader insurrection. The Aurora, therefore, remains an iconic symbol, but its specific contribution requires careful consideration.

This IA investigates whether Vladimir Lenin arrived at Finland Station on April 16, 1917, via a "sealed train," a topic that stands out for its historical significance, historiographical complexity, and analytical depth. The question challenges the myth propagated by Bolsheviks to obscure Lenin’s controversial German-assisted journey during World War I, making it an excellent choice for its intersection of political propaganda, international relations, and historical accuracy. The topic’s strength lies in its engagement with primary sources, such as a legal agreement defining the train’s conditions, and secondary sources like McMeekin’s 2017 analysis disputing Soviet narratives using post-Cold War Russian archives. This allows for a critical evaluation of conflicting accounts, highlighting issues of bias, source reliability, and translation challenges, reflected in the student’s archival research and Russian-language proficiency. Its focus on extraterritoriality breaches—German officers’ presence, Lenin’s alleged speeches, and logistical realities—demonstrates nuanced historical inquiry. Its exploration of archival access difficulties and Soviet-era misinformation offers valuable historiographical insights, making it a compelling and sophisticated choice for an IA that received a '7'.

This Extended Essay evaluates Lenin's adherence to Orthodox Marxism through a meticulous examination of his theoretical contributions and practical implementations within the context of the Russian Revolution and subsequent Soviet governance. Orthodox Marxism, as delineated by Marx and Engels, posits a deterministic trajectory towards a proletarian revolution facilitated by the inexorable contradictions within capitalist systems. Lenin, whilst fundamentally aligned with these principles, introduced significant deviations through his conceptualisation of the vanguard party and the imperative for a revolutionary elite. This departure from the spontaneous mass uprising envisioned by classical Marxism raises questions regarding the orthodoxy of his Marxist credentials. Furthermore, Lenin's pragmatic adjustments to Marxist theory, necessitated by the exigencies of the Russian socio-political milieu, including the implementation of War Communism and the New Economic Policy, further complicate his categorisation as an Orthodox Marxist.

How far did Alexandra Kollontai influence the Russian Revolution? As an active Bolshevik, she contributed to shaping policies on gender equality and social reforms, notably advancing the rights of working-class women. Kollontai was instrumental in establishing the Zhenotdel, the Bolshevik women's department, which sought to educate, mobilise, and integrate women into revolutionary society. Her writings and speeches emphasised the necessity of women's emancipation as integral to socialist transformation. Furthermore, Kollontai's progressive views on family structure, marriage, and sexuality challenged traditional norms, leaving a lasting ideological impact on post-revolutionary Soviet society.

Leon Trotsky's significance in the October Revolution remains a subject of historical debate. Whilst Lenin provided the ideological framework and overall strategic direction, Trotsky's organisational capabilities were crucial. He masterminded the Military Revolutionary Committee, ensuring the Red Guard's readiness for the uprising. His persuasive oratory skills galvanised support within the Petrograd Soviet, enabling the Bolsheviks to seize power effectively. Without Trotsky's tactical prowess and ability to mobilise key support, the revolution's success would have been considerably less assured, although it would be misleading to dismiss Lenin’s centrality. His influence was undoubtedly pivotal. 

Did Rosa Luxemburg support the Spartacist Uprising? Whilst she was a leading figure in the Spartacus League, she initially expressed reservations about the timing of the January 1919 revolt. She favoured a more gradual approach, prioritising the education and organisation of the working class before attempting a seizure of power. However, once the uprising commenced, fuelled by the dismissal of the Independent Social Democratic Party members from the Berlin police, Luxemburg actively participated in its leadership through articles in Die Rote Fahne. Despite her earlier caution, she ultimately supported the uprising as a response to the prevailing political climate.

'A'-winning Extended Essay considering the role of the Chinese Labour Corps and the May Fourth Movement in Peking, reflecting evolving interpretations of their significance in modern Chinese history. Initially, the CLC, which supported Allied forces during the Great War, was overlooked, with Western narratives focusing on military contributions. However, recent scholarship has highlighted its crucial role and the harsh conditions endured by its members. The May Fourth Movement of 1919, sparked by dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles, has been extensively studied as a pivotal moment in Chinese nationalism and intellectual awakening. Early interpretations emphasised its anti-imperialist and cultural dimensions, whilst contemporary analyses explore its broader social and political ramifications, including its influence on the Chinese Communist Party and modern Chinese identity.

The Jallianwala Bagh massacre of April 13, 1919, where Brigadier General Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed crowd in Amritsar, killing 379 and injuring over 1200, is examined to assess its moral justification. This Internal Assessment takes on Andrew Roberts's argument that it was justified by analysing two main sources: Nick Lloyd’s book, The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of One Fateful Day, which defends Dyer’s actions, arguing the crowd was volatile and the British acted with restraint, and Richard Attenborough’s film Gandhi, which portrays the massacre as a brutal act, though with inaccuracies, such as depicting women and children present. Lloyd suggests Dyer acted in self-defence due to misinformation, whilst Indian historians like Savita Narain and Raja Ram argue the crowd was peaceful, and Dyer’s excessive force, including 1650 bullets fired without warning, was unjustified

Yet another Extended Essay scoring an 'A' based on a common DP History exam question,  this one examines the historiography surrounding the Treaty of Versailles which has been marked by a spectrum of interpretations regarding its justification as a peace settlement. Early critiques, notably from the "Diktat" school, posited that the treaty was excessively punitive, sowing the seeds for future conflict. Conversely, some historians argue that it was a necessary measure to contain German militarism and establish a new order in Europe. Revisionist perspectives emerged, suggesting that the treaty was a flawed but ultimately pragmatic attempt at peace. Recent scholarship has sought to contextualise the treaty within broader geopolitical dynamics, emphasising its complex legacy and the challenges of post-war reconciliation.

The debates surrounding whether Lenin aimed to remove Stalin and the authenticity of Lenin’s Testament remain contentious among historians. Lenin’s late writings, particularly his Testament, expressed concerns over Stalin’s growing power and temperament, recommending his removal as General Secretary. Some argue that Lenin’s intentions were clear, reflecting genuine apprehension about Stalin’s authoritarian tendencies. Others like Kotkin question the Testament’s legitimacy, suggesting it may have been altered or exaggerated by political opponents to discredit Stalin. The document’s partial suppression by the Communist Party further complicates its credibility. Whilst evidence suggests Lenin harboured reservations about Stalin, the extent to which he sought his removal remains debated, with interpretations influenced by political and ideological biases.

 Mussolini’s involvement in the 1924 murder of Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist politician critical of Fascism, remains contentious. For this internal assessment,my student consulted traditionalist historians, such as Denis Mack Smith, argue that Mussolini was directly complicit, either ordering the killing or creating a climate of violence that encouraged it, citing his subsequent cover-up and political exploitation of the crisis to consolidate power. Conversely, revisionist scholars, like Renzo De Felice, suggest that whilst Mussolini benefited politically, there is insufficient evidence of his direct involvement, proposing that rogue Fascist elements acted independently. The investigation centres on interpreting Mussolini’s intentions, the extent of his control over Fascist squads, and the reliability of contemporary testimonies.

The Holodomor, a catastrophic famine that occurred in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, has been the subject of a number of my students' internal assessments and extended essays, especially given the latest Russian atrocities being waged against that country. Central to the discourse is whether the famine was a result of deliberate policies implemented by Joseph Stalin's regime, aimed at suppressing Ukrainian nationalism, or whether it was a consequence of poor agricultural practices and adverse weather conditions. Proponents of the former view argue that the Soviet government's actions, including grain requisition quotas and the blockade of food aid, constituted genocide. Conversely, others contend that it was an unintended consequence of broader economic failures. This contentious issue continues to provoke strong emotions and differing interpretations.

The assassination of Sergei Kirov, a prominent Bolshevik leader and head of the Leningrad Party organisation, on December 1, 1934, remains a contentious historical question. Whilst Leonid Nikolaev was identified and executed as the lone assassin, doubts persist regarding the level of complicity. Many historians query whether Joseph Stalin orchestrated the murder to eliminate a potential rival and initiate the Great Purge, using the NKVD to facilitate or even direct Nikolaev. Evidence remains circumstantial, centring on convenient security lapses and the subsequent suppression of independent investigation. The precise extent of Stalin's involvement, versus a spontaneous act or a more limited conspiracy, is still debated.

The origins of Hitler's pathological anti-Semitism are complex and multifaceted, defying a singular explanation. Influenced by the virulent anti-Semitic currents prevalent in late 19th and early 20th-century Europe, Hitler absorbed ideas blaming Jews for societal ills, including Germany's defeat in World War I and economic hardships. His experiences in Vienna, where anti-Jewish sentiment was particularly strong, further radicalised his views. Additionally, his exposure to extremist ideologies during his time in post-war Munich, coupled with his charismatic leadership and ability to exploit public grievances, allowed him to elevate anti-Semitism into a central tenet of Nazi ideology, culminating in the Holocaust. Historians point to a confluence of factors, including his personal experiences, political opportunism, and a distorted interpretation of history and social Darwinism. Hitler's anti-Semitism, fuelled by a potent mix of prejudice, paranoia, and a desire for scapegoating, ultimately culminated in the horrific genocide of the Holocaust.

This IA compares Hitler's 1920 '25-Point Manifesto' and Mussolini's 1919 'The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle' to assess their ideological alignment in nationalisation, racial, and economic policies. Both primary sources outline the core principles of Nazism and Fascism. My student evaluates their origins, purposes, and content, noting strengths like their direct reflection of each leader's vision and limitations such as potential exaggerations for propaganda. Both manifestos align significantly in nationalism, advocating territorial expansion and military strength, and in economic policies, addressing post-WW1 instability through profit redistribution. However, racial policies diverge: Hitler's manifesto promotes anti-Semitic Aryan purity, whilst Mussolini's shows no early anti-Semitism, adopting it later under German influence in 1938. Historians like Hobsbawm highlight ideological overlaps, whilst Knox notes differences in motivations. The analysis concludes that despite shared economic and nationalistic goals, racial policy differences significantly distinguish the documents. The reflection discusses challenges like translation accuracy and source bias.

The question of who was responsible for the Reichstag Fire remains a subject of historical debate which led me to personally investigate on-site with my class. On the evening of February 27, 1933, the German Parliament building, the Reichstag, was set ablaze. The fire was pivotal in consolidating Hitler's power, as the Nazi regime swiftly attributed the act to a communist conspiracy, using it to justify the suspension of civil liberties and the mass arrest of political opponents. Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch communist, was arrested at the scene and later executed. However, some historians argue that the Nazis may have orchestrated the fire themselves to eliminate opposition and consolidate their authority. 

The question of Hitler's direct involvement in the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934 remains a subject of historical debate. Whilst the perpetrators were Austrian Nazis who clearly aimed to establish a regime aligned with Germany, explicit orders from Hitler have never been definitively proven. Some historians argue that the assassination was orchestrated with at least Hitler's tacit approval, given his ambition to annex Austria. Others suggest that while Hitler desired Dollfuss's removal, the plot was primarily driven by radical Austrian elements, with Hitler maintaining a degree of plausible deniability. Ultimately, conclusive evidence directly linking Hitler to the precise planning and execution of the assassination is lacking, though his broader strategic aims undoubtedly contributed to the climate of violence.

The historiography of the Battle of Cable Street, which took place on October 4, 1936 in London’s East End, has evolved significantly over time as seen in this Extended Essay. Initially, the event was framed as a heroic moment of anti-fascist resistance, where Jewish, Irish, and socialist communities united to halt Oswald Mosley’s British Union of Fascists (BUF) from marching through a predominantly Jewish area. Early accounts, often influenced by left-wing narratives, emphasised the role of collective action and solidarity. However, later scholarship has critiqued this portrayal, highlighting the complexities of the event, including the limited impact on the BUF’s broader influence and the tensions within the anti-fascist coalition. Recent studies have also examined the role of the police, the media’s portrayal, and the long-term implications for British politics, offering a more nuanced understanding of this pivotal moment in British history.

Was the Battle of Luding in May 1935 a pivotal event during the Chinese Communist Party's Long March or a minor skirmish exaggerated for propaganda? Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China portrays it as the Long March's most critical moment, based on Mao's account of Red Army soldiers bravely crossing a chain-only Luding Bridge under Kuomintang fire, despite half the planks being removed. Conversely, Jung Chang and Jon Halliday argue the battle was a myth, citing witnesses from the 1980s and 1990s who recalled no significant conflict and suggested the Red Army removed the planks to create a heroic narrative. Official CCP reports celebrate the battle, claiming soldiers overcame great odds, a narrative reinforced through films and memorials, yet Deng Xiao-Ping later described it as an easy operation. Contradictory sources, including Snow's CCP-revised work and Chang's anti-Mao bias, complicate the truth. Investigations reveal the bridge's treacherous conditions, but witness accounts and journals from May 1935 suggest minimal conflict.

The authenticity of Robert Capa's iconic "The Falling Soldier" photograph has been a long-standing point of contention among historians and photography critics. Some argue that the image, depicting a Republican soldier at the moment of death, was staged for dramatic effect. Evidence cited includes inconsistencies in the location where the photograph was purportedly taken and the lack of supporting documentation. Conversely, many believe the photograph to be genuine, capturing the brutal reality of the Spanish Civil War. Supporters point to Capa's reputation as a fearless war photographer and the powerful emotional impact of the image as indicators of its veracity.

Conducted by a couple of my Spanish students, these Internal Assessments and Extended Essays investigating the bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War reveals a contentious debate over motives and justifications. Traditionalist historians, such as Hugh Thomas, argue that the bombing was a deliberate act of terror by the Nationalists, supported by the German Condor Legion, aimed at breaking civilian morale and testing aerial warfare tactics, with little strategic justification. Conversely, revisionist scholars, including Jesús Salas Larrazábal, contend that the attack targeted legitimate military objectives, such as disrupting Republican supply lines, and that civilian casualties were unintended consequences exaggerated by propaganda. The debate hinges on interpreting military intent, the extent of civilian targeting, and the role of propaganda in shaping historical narratives. 

This investigation explores whether Federico García Lorca foresaw his death when he returned to Granada in July 1936, amidst the Spanish military uprising. Historian Ian Gibson argues Lorca was aware of the risks, citing his leftist activities, friendships with republican figures, and death motifs in his writings, suggesting he accepted potential martyrdom. Conversely, journalist Eduardo Molina Fajardo posits Lorca believed he was safe in Granada due to his apolitical stance, friendships across ideological lines, and plans to travel to Mexico, indicating he did not anticipate his fate. Evidence includes Lorca’s political engagements, his stay with the Falangist Rosales family, and internal conflicts among insurgents, which may have led to his arrest and execution on August 16, 1936. The lack of definitive records and reliance on subjective sources like eyewitness accounts complicate conclusions. Ultimately, Lorca’s death may have been an unforeseen consequence of misjudging his safety, challenging the romanticised view of him as a revolutionary martyr.

Extended Essay looking at the debate surrounding the role of Trotskyists in the Barcelona May Days of 1937 is contentious. Traditional Marxist historians, such as Ernest Mandel, argue that the Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista (POUM), though not strictly Trotskyist, played a significant role in the uprising due to their anti-Stalinist stance, which exacerbated tensions within the Republican coalition. Conversely, writers like George Orwell, who was present during the events, assert that the POUM and Trotskyists were unfairly blamed by Communist-led forces seeking to consolidate power and eliminate dissenting leftist factions. This debate highlights the complex interplay of ideological differences, political expediency, and the broader dynamics of the Spanish Civil War.

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident of July 7, 1937, marked a pivotal moment in the escalation of the Second Sino-Japanese War leading me to cycle to the site with a student for his IA. A minor clash between Japanese and Chinese troops near the Marco Polo Bridge in Beijing, sparked by a disputed patrol, rapidly escalated into a full-blown military confrontation. The incident, shrouded in conflicting accounts and political motivations, provided the pretext for Japan's full-scale invasion of China, plunging the region into a brutal and protracted conflict. The incident's legacy continues to be debated, with historians examining the complex interplay of military strategy, political ambition, and nationalistic sentiment that contributed to its tragic unfolding. 

 

This internal assessment regarding the Nanking Massacre, also known as the Rape of Nanking, seeks to ascertain the number of Chinese civilians and disarmed soldiers unlawfully killed by the bestial Imperial Japanese Army following the city's fall in December 1937. Establishing a precise figure is fraught with difficulty due to the destruction of records, the chaotic nature of the atrocities, and differing methodologies employed by historians. Estimates vary considerably, ranging from tens of thousands to over three hundred thousand victims, a discrepancy reflecting the challenges inherent in quantifying the scale of such wartime violence and the enduring historical debate surrounding the event.

This investigation explores the most probable theory behind Amelia Earhart’s 1937 disappearance during her world-wide flight. Two main theories are evaluated: the Crash and Sink theory, proposed by Elgen Long, and the Castaway theory, supported by Ric Gillespie. Long’s theory, based on primary radio transmissions, suggests Earhart and Noonan crashed into the ocean near Howland Island due to fuel depletion and navigational challenges, supported by strong signal evidence. Gillespie’s theory posits they crash-landed on Nikumaroro Island, citing TIGHAR’s expeditions and a key 281-nautical-mile radio message. However, Gillespie’s artefact evidence, like a jack-knife and aluminium scrap, lacks conclusive ties to Earhart’s Electra. Long’s theory is deemed more credible due to its reliance on primary sources, whilst Gillespie’s secondary evidence faces limitations from potential contamination. The investigation reflects on historical biases and the challenges of researching distant events.

 

The influence of American eugenics on the Nazi euthanasia policy remains a complex and contested historical matter. While Nazi ideology possessed its own distinct racial antisemitism, the systematic implementation of involuntary sterilisation and, subsequently, ‘Action T4’ – the Nazi euthanasia programme – demonstrably drew inspiration from coercive eugenics practices already established in the United States. American laws permitting sterilisation of the ‘feeble-minded’ provided a model, and scientific literature detailing such procedures was readily available to German practitioners. 

This IA examines the extent to which black Germans were affected by racist Nazi government policies, analysing two key sources: Massaquoi’s Destined to Witness,  and Lusane’s Hitler’s Black Victims. Massaquoi’s work offers a firsthand perspective whilst Lusane’s book provides archival data and survivor interviews. The investigation reveals black Germans weren't primary Nazi targets- some members of the Hitler Youth were black- but faced discrimination, notably through the Nuremberg Laws and the Rhineland sterilisation program, affecting about 500 mixed-race individuals from an estimated 20,000–25,000 black population. Black women faced harsher treatment, including higher sterilization and concentration camp rates. 

 

The Hossbach Memorandum, documented on November 10, 1937, holds considerable historical significance as it reveals the aggressive military expansion plans of Adolf Hitler. The memorandum, recorded by Colonel Friedrich Hossbach, details a meeting between Hitler and his top military officials, wherein he outlined his intentions to annex Austria and Czechoslovakia, and ultimately wage war against France and the Soviet Union. This document is crucial as it demonstrates Hitler's clear intent to pursue an aggressive foreign policy, undermining the notion that his actions were merely opportunistic. It serves as a key piece of evidence in understanding the lead-up to the Second World War.

 This internal assessment on Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler at Munich centres upon the British Prime Minister's decision in 1938 to permit Nazi Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain's policy aimed primarily to avoid another devastating European conflict by conceding to Hitler's territorial demands. Critics argue that this approach emboldened Hitler, undermined international security, and directly precipitated the outbreak of the Second World War. Conversely, defenders suggest that Chamberlain realistically assessed Britain's unpreparedness for war, and sought valuable time to strengthen military capabilities. This historical debate continues to examine whether appeasement was a necessary diplomatic compromise or a tragic strategic miscalculation.

To what extent was Mussolini an ‘honest broker’ in the 1938 Munich Conference? I was taken aback by the idea, but some historians, such as Denis Mack Smith, suggest that Mussolini played a crucial and relatively neutral role in mediating between Hitler and the Western powers, facilitating a diplomatic solution to the Sudeten crisis and preventing war. This perspective highlights Mussolini's pragmatism and diplomatic acumen. Conversely, other scholars argue that Mussolini's actions were far from neutral, pointing to his alignment with Hitler, his imperial ambitions, and his desire to exploit the crisis to further Italian interests. This interpretation emphasises Mussolini's opportunism and complicity in the appeasement of Nazi Germany, questioning his status as an 'honest broker'.

 

The question of Czechoslovakian resistance to the 1939 German invasion remains a significant historiographical debate which this Czech student of mine seized. Initial assessments largely supported the official government line – that armed resistance would have been futile given the Wehrmacht’s strength and the lack of Allied support. Later scholarship, particularly post-Cold War, has challenged this, arguing Czechoslovakia possessed a modernised army, significant fortifications, and a motivated populace. I would add Hitler would never be able to fully commit, concerned about any Allied attack on his rear. Whilst acknowledging the overwhelming odds, historians now debate whether sustained resistance could have significantly raised the cost of occupation for Germany, potentially deterring further aggression or influencing Allied policy, though conclusive proof remains elusive. 

An Extended Essay looking at the typical IBDP Paper 2 exam question asking the extent to which foreign intervention contributed to the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War. Some historians, such as Antony Beevor, argue that the substantial military aid provided by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, including troops, aircraft, and strategic support, was instrumental in tipping the balance in favour of Franco's forces. Conversely, other scholars, like Hugh Thomas and revisionists like Paul Preston, contend that while foreign intervention was indeed crucial, it was the disorganisation and internal divisions within the Republican camp, exacerbated by the limited and often delayed support from the Soviet Union and the international brigades, that ultimately sealed their defeat. This debate underscores the multifaceted nature of the conflict and the interplay of domestic and international factors. 

The persecution of Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky was a complex event with multiple factors at play. Whilst German involvement has been cited as a contributing factor, its extent is debated. In 1937, the Nazis fabricated documents suggesting Tukhachevsky was conspiring with Germany, which were then leaked to the Soviet Union. Stalin, already suspicious of Tukhachevsky, used this as pretext for his arrest and execution. The IA required critical analysis of both primary and secondary sources, including NKVD documents, German intelligence reports, and interpretations from scholars such as Conquest and Montefiore. It also evaluated competing historical perspectives—whether the purge of Tukhachevsky stemmed primarily from Stalin’s paranoia and desire to eliminate potential rivals, or whether the forged evidence provided by German intelligence played a decisive role to show the role of disinformation, the fragility of Soviet military leadership, and the extent to which foreign powers could manipulate internal Soviet affairs during the interwar period.

The historiography of the Battle of Britain has evolved significantly since 1940 and a number of my students have investigated Britain's Finest Hour. Early accounts, such as those by the Air Ministry, framed the conflict as a heroic triumph of the Royal Air Force, emphasising the "Few" and their role in thwarting German invasion plans. Revisionist historians in the 1960s and 1970s, including Len Deighton, challenged this narrative, highlighting strategic miscalculations by the Luftwaffe and the overstated threat of invasion. More recent scholarship, such as works by Richard Overy, adopts a broader perspective, examining economic, technological, and social dimensions, thus providing a more nuanced understanding of this pivotal Second World War campaign.

The impact of Enigma decrypts on the duration of the Second World War has led some historians, such as F.H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, to argue that the intelligence garnered from Enigma intercepts significantly contributed to the Allied war effort, enabling crucial strategic decisions and potentially shortening the conflict by several years, pointing to its impact on the Battle of the Atlantic, the North African campaign, and the D-Day landings. Conversely others, including Ronald Lewin and Andrew Roberts, have tempered this assessment, suggesting that whilst Enigma intelligence was undoubtedly valuable, its overall impact on the war's outcome was less decisive than previously claimed, emphasising the complex interplay of factors contributing to Allied success, including superior industrial capacity, Soviet resistance, and strategic bombing. This perspective highlights the limitations of intelligence, the challenges of its dissemination and application, and the enduring significance of conventional military operations in achieving ultimate victory.

The appalling question of whether Churchill deliberately sacrificed Coventry to protect intelligence secrets during the Second World War still remains contentious. On November 14, 1940, the Luftwaffe devastated Coventry, killing hundreds. Some historians, citing Ultra decrypts, argue that Churchill knew of the impending raid but withheld warnings to avoid revealing that Britain had cracked Enigma codes. Others, including Martin Gilbert, contend that the intelligence was imprecise, lacking specific targets, and that Churchill prioritised national strategy over local defence. While evidence suggests strategic considerations influenced decisions, the notion of deliberate sacrifice remains speculative, lacking definitive proof. 

The Royal Navy's action against the French fleet at Mers-el-Kébir in July 1940 was clearly justified by compelling strategic necessity following France's surrender to Nazi Germany. With the French government capitulating and signing an armistice against its sworn promises, Britain faced the grave risk that significant naval assets would fall into German hands, fundamentally altering the balance of naval power. Despite diplomatic efforts to secure alternative arrangements, including neutralisation of the vessels or their relocation to distant ports, French Admiral Gensoul haughtily rejected these proposals. Churchill's government, faced with existential threats to Britain's survival, had no viable alternative but to neutralise these vessels, thereby preventing Hitler from acquiring formidable naval resources that would have imperilled the Allied war effort.

Scoring an insulting 5/25 from the IBO- the only one of my students to have failed in over two decades of my teachin g the course- for a meticulously- researched and sophisticated investigation into the claim that Hitler had only one testicle which has been a subject of historical speculation and debate. This assertion, often linked to medical records and anecdotal accounts, emerged in the post-war period, with some sources suggesting he suffered from monorchism due to injury or congenital condition. However, the evidence remains inconclusive, as no definitive medical documentation has been verified. Historians have approached the topic with caution, noting the potential for myth-making and the influence of wartime propaganda. Whilst the claim persists in popular culture, scholarly consensus leans towards scepticism, emphasising the lack of reliable primary sources to substantiate this aspect of Hitler’s medical history. Historians have largely focused on the broader context of Hitler's life and career, avoiding the propagation of unsubstantiated medical gossip, but at a time when children are actively taught biology in schools in the service of the latest insidious ideology, to punish a high school student for sensitively researching such a topic is deplorable.

Subject of a couple of internal assessments, the question of whether Hitler suffered from Parkinson's disease has generated considerable historical debate and medical speculation. Observations and eyewitness accounts during Hitler's later years noted symptoms such as tremors, impaired movement, rigid posture, and declining handwriting quality, which some experts interpret as indicative of Parkinson's disease. However, definitive medical evidence confirming this diagnosis remains elusive, and alternative explanations involving stress, medication side-effects, or other neurological disorders have also been proposed. Consequently, historians and medical professionals continue to examine available records and testimonies, yet the absence of conclusive documentation ensures that the precise nature of Hitler's condition remains unresolved. 

The question concerning Hitler's alleged dependence on methamphetamine has increasingly become a subject of historical scrutiny and medical debate. During the Second World War, Hitler reportedly received regular injections from his personal physician, Dr Theodor Morell, containing various substances including stimulants such as methamphetamine. Supporters of this theory suggest these drugs influenced Hitler's erratic behaviour, mood swings, and deteriorating health. However, historians remain divided, with some arguing that available evidence is insufficient to confirm genuine addiction or behavioural dependence. Consequently, despite documented instances of drug administration, the extent to which Hitler was truly dependent or addicted to methamphetamine remains uncertain. 

Written before the LGBTQwerty madness, this student investigated the historiography on the revision of Paragraph 175, which criminalised homosexual acts, revealing a complex debate on its implications for tolerance within Nazi Germany which received an 'A' from the IBO. Traditionalist historians, such as Richard Plant, argue that the 1935 revision, which broadened the law’s scope and intensified penalties, reflected a deliberate Nazi policy of intolerance, aiming to eradicate homosexuality as part of their ideological purge of perceived degeneracy. Conversely, revisionist scholars, including Geoffrey Giles, suggest that enforcement varied, with some elements of German society and even within the Nazi Party exhibiting selective tolerance, particularly towards high-ranking officials. This debate centres on the interplay between legal changes, societal attitudes, and the pragmatic inconsistencies of Nazi governance.

Among the Extended Essays and Internal Assessments linked here investigating the role of art in promoting Nazi ideology, a couple look specifically into the reception of the 1937 "Degenerate Art" exhibition.  Whilst some historians like Shirer argue that the exhibition was a resounding failure, failing to achieve its intended purpose of purging "degenerate" art from the public sphere, others like Spotts contend that it was a calculated and successful propaganda tool.  The exhibition's impact on the wider artistic community is also a point of contention, with some arguing that it served to solidify the Nazi regime's control over artistic expression, while others suggest it ultimately contributed to a greater awareness of the dangers of totalitarian regimes. The exhibition's legacy continues to be a source of scholarly inquiry and public discussion and is especially popular give many of my students live in Munich.

Another popular subject for my students' research investigations, Rudolf Hess's flight to Scotland in May 1941 remains a contentious historical puzzle. The official narrative suggests a lone, deluded attempt by Hitler's deputy to negotiate peace with Britain, bypassing official channels. However, alternative theories abound. Some posit a secret British intelligence operation to lure Hess, offering feigned peace prospects. Others suggest Hess genuinely believed influential British factions opposed Churchill and desired an Anglo-German agreement against the Soviet Union. The complete truth is elusive; crucial documents remain classified, and the motivations of both Hess and certain British figures are still debated, leaving the definitive explanation for his audacious journey shrouded in uncertainty.

A few Internal Assessments and Extended Essays my students wrote concerning Operation Barbarossa. One scored a 'D'- originally a 'C', I advised him not to have it regraded as it was more narrative than actual evaluative. Traditionalist historians, such as Lord Alan Bullock, argue that the invasion was a premeditated act of aggression, driven by Hitler’s ideological goal of Lebensraum and the destruction of Bolshevism, with no credible Soviet threat. Conversely, revisionist scholars, including Viktor Suvorov in his book Icebreaker which served as the basis for two IAs, contend that Barbarossa was pre-emptive, citing Soviet military build-ups as evidence of an imminent attack on Germany. Critics of this view, such as David Glantz, dismiss it as speculative, emphasising Hitler’s long-standing expansionist ambitions. The debate centres on interpreting military intelligence, ideological motives, and strategic planning.

The argument that France lacked serious resistance during the German occupation contends that post-war narratives greatly exaggerated the movement's significance for national prestige. Proponents note that genuine resistance remained limited to disparate groups until late 1943, with most citizens accepting Vichy authority through necessity or conviction. Historical records suggest active resisters constituted less than three percent of the population, with organised sabotage and intelligence operations achieving modest strategic impact. The Resistance's fragmentation along political lines—Gaullists, communists and various factions—further undermined effectiveness. Critics maintain that the heroic mythology of widespread resistance emerged predominantly as a post-liberation construction designed to rehabilitate French national honour and obscure the uncomfortable realities of widespread collaboration, treason, betrayal and accommodation.

 

The question of who betrayed Anne Frank and her family remains one of the most enduring mysteries of the Holocaust. The Franks, along with four other individuals, hid in the Secret Annex in Amsterdam from 1942 until their arrest by the Nazis in August 1944. Several theories have emerged over the years, implicating various individuals who may have had knowledge of their hiding place. Notable suspects include warehouse worker Willem van Maaren and the wife of an employee, Lena Hartog. However, no conclusive evidence has surfaced, leaving the identity of the betrayer uncertain. Recent investigations, such as those conducted by the Anne Frank House and independent researchers, were used by my student to shed light on this enigma.

Otto Skorzeny, a prominent figure in Nazi Germany, is often associated with daring operations, yet his actual roles and achievements remain subjects of debate. As a Waffen-SS officer, Skorzeny is credited with leading the rescue mission that freed Benito Mussolini from captivity in 1943 which is the subject of this internal assessment. However, the extent of his involvement in other high-profile operations, such as the Ardennes offensive and the alleged plot to assassinate the Big Three at the Tehran Conference, is less clear. Some historians argue that his reputation was inflated by Nazi propaganda. Post-war, Skorzeny's activities, including his work with various intelligence agencies, further complicate assessments of his true impact.

The question of whether Erwin Rommel, the German field marshal during the Second World War, was a hero or a myth remains a subject of considerable debate. Proponents of his heroic status highlight his tactical brilliance, particularly in the North African campaign, and his reputed chivalry, earning him the moniker "Desert Fox." Conversely, critics argue that his legacy is a myth, inflated by wartime propaganda and post-war romanticisation, which obscures his role within the Nazi regime. Whilst Rommel's involvement in the plot against Hitler is often cited, his earlier loyalty to the regime complicates the narrative, rendering his legacy contentious. 

 Did Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr, play a significant role in the resistance against Hitler? As a senior intelligence officer, Canaris is credited with covertly undermining Nazi operations, including leaking information to the Allies and supporting plots against Hitler, notably the 20 July assassination attempt. His actions, however, were often cautious and indirect, leading some historians to question the extent of his commitment. Whilst his eventual execution by the Nazis in 1945 underscores his opposition, others argue his role was exaggerated post-war, complicating assessments of his true significance in the resistance.

Sophie Scholl receives a lot of attention, especially from my students, because she was the only female in the White Rose. Personally, I feel she was a disaster who joined against the wishes of the group and ended up getting caught and led to everyone being arrested and executed, including her own brother. That said, traditionalist historians like Annette Dumbach have portrayed the group as heroic moral exemplars, driven by Christian ethics and a commitment to human rights, significantly influencing post-war German memory. Conversely, revisionist scholars, including Gunter Heipp, argue that their impact was limited, highlighting their small scale, elite composition, and lack of broader societal influence during the war, suggesting their legacy was amplified post-war for political purposes. The debates in these research papers centre on assessing their practical effectiveness versus their symbolic role in resistance narratives.

Another subject of my class trips, the Wannsee Conference, held on January 20, 1942, is widely regarded as a pivotal moment in the Holocaust, though its significance is debated among historians. It formalised the "Final Solution," coordinating the systematic deportation and extermination of European Jews, with senior Nazi officials endorsing the plan. While some scholars, such as Christopher Browning, argue it marked a decisive bureaucratic shift towards genocide, others, like Mark Roseman, contend it merely streamlined pre-existing policies, as mass killings had already begun. Nevertheless, the conference symbolises the Nazi regime's chilling efficiency and ideological commitment to annihilation, underscoring its historical importance.

Subject of a few outstanding internal assessments and this extended essay (receiving an 'A' from the IBO), the Nazis’ medical experiments, conducted primarily within concentration camps, served a chillingly pragmatic purpose aligned with their ideological goals. Ostensibly framed as scientific research, they aimed to advance Nazi racial ideology and military medicine. Experiments sought to determine the limits of human endurance, test the efficacy of treatments for battlefield injuries – often without anaesthetic – and ‘prove’ the racial inferiority of perceived enemies. These investigations were not driven by genuine medical inquiry, but by a ruthless pursuit of knowledge to benefit the ‘Aryan’ race and enhance German military capabilities, utterly disregarding the suffering and deaths of victims.

The question of whether US President Roosevelt possessed foreknowledge of the attack on Pearl Harbour remains a contentious historical debate. While evidence suggests FDR anticipated a Japanese attack in the Pacific, the extent to which he knowingly allowed the attack to occur to galvanise public support for war is fiercely disputed. Critics point to intercepted and partially decoded Japanese communications, arguing Roosevelt deliberately withheld crucial information from military commanders at Pearl Harbour. However, proponents maintain that intelligence was ambiguous and insufficient to predict the precise timing and location of the attack, and that a full warning would have revealed decryption capabilities.

The culpability of Leni Riefenstahl for Nazi crimes remains a subject of ongoing debate. While she never directly participated in atrocities, Riefenstahl's prolific filmmaking, notably "Triumph of the Will," served as powerful propaganda for the Nazi regime. This work undeniably glorified Hitler and the Nazi party, aiding in their consolidation of power. Although she consistently denied knowledge of the Holocaust and claimed she was merely an artist, critics argue she knowingly collaborated with a murderous regime, benefiting from its patronage. Consequently, the extent of her complicity remains a complex ethical and historical question, leaving her legacy contested.

The extent of Albert Speer's knowledge about the Holocaust remains a subject of historical debate. As Adolf Hitler's architect and later Minister of Armaments, Speer was deeply embedded in the Nazi regime. While he claimed limited awareness of the extermination camps, evidence suggests he attended conferences where the Final Solution was discussed and visited areas near concentration camps. His proximity to key figures and his role in resource allocation imply he likely had more knowledge than he admitted. Historians continue to scrutinise his testimony, questioning whether his professed ignorance was a deliberate attempt to distance himself from the atrocities. 

 How close was the Nazi regime to creating the atomic bomb? This IA engages with a pivotal moment in 20th-century history, exploring the intersection of science, politics, and warfare during the Second World World War. The investigation allows for critical evaluation of diverse sources, such as Rainer Karlsch’s revisionist Hitler’s Bomb and the primary Farm Hall Transcripts, fostering skills in source analysis and historiography. The topic’s controversy—challenging traditional views on Nazi scientific capabilities—encourages nuanced debate and independent judgement. It also connects to broader themes, like the ethical dilemmas of scientific advancements and resource allocation in wartime which served the student well in his Theory of Knowledge course. With a manageable scope and access to rich archival evidence, this topic allowed this student to develop a well-substantiated argument while honing research and critical thinking skills essential for the IBDP History curriculum. 

This was a challenging investigation for my student as the historiographical debate surrounding the responsibility of the GAP members behind the Via Rasella attack for the Ardeatine Massacre is highly contentious. Some historians argue that the partisans' action, which killed 33 German soldiers, directly provoked the brutal reprisal, making them at least partially responsible for the massacre of 335 Italian civilians. This perspective is often supported by those who emphasise the importance of considering the consequences of resistance actions. Conversely, other scholars contend that the ultimate responsibility lies with the German occupiers who ordered and carried out the disproportionate and criminal reprisal. They assert that blaming the partisans shifts culpability away from the true perpetrators. This debate raises complex questions about the ethics of resistance, the dynamics of occupied societies, and the responsibilities of occupiers and resistance fighters.

The mysterious death of Raul Wallenberg offers significant academic and historical value. Wallenberg, a Swedish diplomat, saved thousands of Jews during the Holocaust by issuing protective passports and establishing safe houses in Budapest. His disappearance in 1945, after being detained by Soviet forces, remains an enigma, with conflicting accounts of his fate- ranging from execution in a Soviet prison to possible survival in captivity. This IA allowed my student to engage with primary sources, such as diplomatic correspondence and survivor testimonies, and secondary sources to evaluate evidence and construct a focused research question and helped hone his critical thinking, source evaluation, and historiographical skills, essential for IBDP History. Exploring Wallenberg’s case also deepens understanding of Holocaust history, Cold War tensions, and human rights, making it a compelling and educationally rich IA topic.

 The question of whether Britain and the United States should have bombed Auschwitz during the Second World War is highly contentious. Advocates argue that targeting the camp could have disrupted the Holocaust, potentially saving countless lives by halting the extermination process. However, opponents highlight the practical and ethical challenges, including the risk of killing prisoners, the difficulty of achieving precision with 1940s bombing technology, and the possibility that such action might not have significantly impeded the Nazi genocide. This debate underscores the complex moral and strategic dilemmas faced by Allied leaders in balancing military priorities with humanitarian imperatives during the war. 

A number of Internal Assessments and Extended Essays examining the question of whether Dresden's bombing during World War II was justified which remains a contentious issue in historical debate. Whilst some historians like Andrew Roberts argue that the bombing was a necessary measure to cripple German war production and morale, others like Holocaust-denier David Irving contend that it was a disproportionate and indiscriminate attack on civilian life, resulting in immense suffering and loss. The debate is further complicated by the lack of clear evidence regarding the specific targets and the extent of civilian casualties.  Historians continue to grapple with the ethical and moral implications of the bombing, seeking to understand the complex historical context and the motivations behind the decision to target Dresden.

Making the most of our location and my own connections to the site, students have been able to write their research papers on the liberation of Dachau concentration camp by American forces on April 29, 1945 which revealed the horrors of the Nazi regime. Soldiers encountered emaciated prisoners, mass graves, and evidence of systematic brutality. Over 30,000 survivors, many near death, were found in appalling conditions. The discovery of gas chambers and crematoria underscored the camp's role in mass murder. Shocked by the atrocities, American troops documented the scene, and some executed captured SS guards in anger. The liberation marked a pivotal moment in exposing the Holocaust's extent, serving as a stark reminder of the inhumanity perpetrated within Dachau's walls. 

 

Written by a Japanese-German student, this internal assessment investigates the claim that Japanese-American Nisei soldiers were the first to liberate Dachau concentration camp whilst many of their own families were in concentration camps back in the United States. On April 29, 1945, units of the U.S. 42nd and 45th Infantry Divisions, along with elements of the 522nd Field Artillery Battalion, a Nisei unit, were involved in the liberation. Whilst the 522nd, part of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, discovered and liberated subcamps of Dachau, official records indicate that the main camp was primarily liberated by other American units. 

 

Hitler died on April 30, 1945 in his Berlin bunker as the Soviet army closed in. Facing imminent defeat, he committed suicide by shooting himself in the head, while his wife, Eva Braun, died alongside him by ingesting cyanide. Their bodies were reportedly burned by aides in the Reich Chancellery garden, following Hitler's orders to prevent his remains from being captured. Though some conspiracy theories suggest he escaped, historical evidence, including Soviet investigations and witness accounts, confirms his death in the bunker although the question investigated here is exactly how. This marked the collapse of Nazi leadership and the imminent end of the war in Europe. 

Possibly the most popular, even overused, subject for students, the question of whether the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was necessary remains a subject of intense historical debate. Proponents argue that it hastened Japan's surrender, potentially saving lives by avoiding a prolonged and costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. Critics, however, contend that Japan was already on the brink of defeat and that the bombings were motivated by political and strategic considerations, including demonstrating American power to the Soviet Union. The ethical implications of using such devastating weapons against civilian populations further complicate the issue, leaving historians and scholars divided on the necessity and morality of this decision.

This EE into the historical debate surrounding Edvard Beneš' decision to support the mass deportation of Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia is complex and multifaceted. As this EE outlines, some historians argue that Beneš was driven by a desire for ethnic homogeneity and a need to secure the new Czechoslovak state against future German aggression. Others contend that Beneš was heavily influenced by political pressure from the Czechoslovak government in exile and the Soviet Union, which saw the deportations as a means to consolidate power and eliminate potential threats. This debate highlights the interplay between national security, political expediency, and the ethical implications of mass deportations.

 

How far did George F. Kennan’s Long Telegram, sent in 1946, profoundly influence U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War? A key focus in my Cold War unit, Kennan’s analysis of Soviet behaviour as inherently expansionist and ideologically driven laid the groundwork for the policy of containment. This strategy, aimed at halting the spread of communism, became a cornerstone of American diplomacy. The Long Telegram’s emphasis on understanding Soviet motivations and responding with firm but measured actions shaped initiatives such as the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Kennan’s insights framed the Cold War as a global ideological struggle, guiding U.S. policy for decades and cementing his role as a key architect of Cold War strategy.

Similarly, the Marshall Plan, implemented between 1947 and 1952, is a key subject for research given it was driven by multifaceted American motives. Primarily, it aimed to rebuild war-torn European economies, stabilising nations vulnerable to communist influence. By providing over $13 billion in aid, the U.S. sought to foster economic recovery, strengthen democratic governments, and create markets for American goods. Additionally, the plan served geopolitical interests, countering Soviet expansionism and solidifying Western alliances during the Cold War. Humanitarian concerns also played a role, as the U.S. aimed to alleviate widespread suffering. Ultimately, the Marshall Plan reflected a strategic blend of economic, political, and ideological objectives, shaping post-war Europe and American global influence.

No doubt influenced by my vocal admiration for the man and his role in liberating Europe and the Free World, this is yet another extended essay focusing on Churchill, in this case his role in the creation of Israel for which the student received an 'A'. Whilst he supported the Zionist cause during the early 20th century, his stance was influenced by strategic considerations rather than unwavering ideological commitment. Churchill's 1921 White Paper, which limited Jewish immigration to Palestine, reflected British imperial interests and concerns about Arab reactions. However, he later advocated for a Jewish state during the Second World War, partly to address the plight of Jewish refugees. Historians debate the extent of his influence, with some emphasising his pragmatic approach and others highlighting his evolving support for Zionism amidst shifting geopolitical dynamics.

The historiographical debate surrounding the US involvement in the 1948 Italian election is polarised. Some historians argue that the US, through covert CIA operations, financial support for centrist parties, and aggressive propaganda, played a decisive role in ensuring the defeat of the Communist-Socialist alliance, effectively 'stealing' the election. This perspective is supported by declassified documents and testimonies from former CIA agents. Conversely, other scholars contend that while the US did intervene, the election outcome primarily reflected the will of the Italian people, who feared a Communist takeover and supported centrist parties. This particular internal assessment raises questions about the extent and ethics of American intervention in post-war European politics and the agency of Italian voters.

A couple of Internal Assessments relating to the decision of Mao Tse-tung to commit the People's Volunteer Army to the Korean War. Initially, a prevailing view, often termed the 'defensive necessity' thesis, posited that intervention was primarily driven by security concerns regarding the American advance towards the Yalu River, threatening China's industrial heartland. Revisionist interpretations, however, have increasingly emphasised Mao's internal political motivations, suggesting the war offered an opportunity to consolidate revolutionary gains, mobilise the populace, and enhance his prestige within the international communist movement. More recent scholarship attempts a synthesis, acknowledging both genuine security anxieties and the calculated political advantages Mao sought to accrue, arguing that these factors were not mutually exclusive but rather intertwined in the Chairman's calculus for entering the conflict.

What led to the No Gun Ri massacre, wherein American soldiers massacred a large number of South Korean civilians in July 1950, remains a contentious episode and is the subject of a former North Korean student of mine. Initial official accounts downplayed the incident, attributing it to the fog of war and the difficulty in distinguishing refugees from North Korean infiltrators. Subsequent investigative journalism and survivor testimonies brought the scale of the killings to light, prompting a US Army investigation which, whilst acknowledging civilian deaths, maintained there was no official order to fire. Many historians challenge this, citing evidence suggesting some officers, fearing infiltration, did issue orders or create an environment permissive of firing on civilians. Others emphasise the inexperience and panic amongst poorly trained troops facing a chaotic situation, alongside a pervasive fear of guerrillas disguised as refugees. The debate thus centres on the degree of direct culpability, systemic failures, and the prevailing climate of fear. 

The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur by Truman in April 1951 is the focus of this Internal Assessment. The orthodox view emphasises insubordination, citing MacArthur's public disagreements with administration policy on limiting the Korean War, particularly his advocacy for expanding the conflict into China, which directly contravened Truman's desire for a negotiated settlement. Revisionist perspectives, conversely, highlight political dimensions, suggesting Truman aimed to reassert civilian control over the military, fearing MacArthur's popularity and independent power base posed a challenge to presidential authority. Some scholars also point to a growing divergence in strategic vision, with Truman increasingly prioritising the containment doctrine in Europe over MacArthur's more aggressive Far East strategy. These varying interpretations underscore the complex interplay of military discipline, political manoeuvring, and strategic disagreements.

 

The debate surrounding the circumstances of Joseph Stalin's death has long been a popular question for students, helped by no less an authority as Simon Sebag Montefiore who provided support to one. Whilst the official cause of death was listed as a cerebral haemorrhage, speculation has persisted regarding the possibility of poisoning. This theory gained credence following the publication of memoirs by several high-ranking Soviet officials, including Nikita Khrushchev and Vyacheslav Molotov, which alluded to the involvement of Lavrentiy Beria, the head of the Soviet secret police. However, a lack of concrete evidence has hindered the validation of this theory, leaving the debate unresolved amongst historians and fuelling continued speculation about the events surrounding Stalin's demise. 

The historiography surrounding Ethel Rosenberg's guilt remains contentious which provided the basis for this Extended Essay. Initially, the prevailing narrative, heavily influenced by Cold War anxieties and the prosecution's case, asserted her complicity alongside her husband Julius in atomic espionage. Subsequent decades witnessed revisionist interpretations, fuelled by the release of Venona decrypts and testimonies from key figures like David Greenglass, her brother. These often suggest a lesser role, perhaps limited knowledge, or even outright fabrication of evidence against her to pressure Julius. More recent scholarship, whilst acknowledging the ambiguities, tends to argue for a degree of involvement, though the extent and significance of her contribution to Soviet intelligence continue to be debated amongst historians.

To what extent did Konrad Adenauer’s political and economic strategies contribute to West Germany’s post-World War II reconstruction? This IA focuses on two sources: Adenauer’s 1950 speech on the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a primary source reflecting his vision for European integration, and Werner Biermann’s 2007 biography, Ein Jahrhundert Leben, a secondary source analysing Adenauer’s leadership. Adenauer’s economic strategies, including the social market economy and the 1948 currency reform, fuelled the Wirtschaftswunder, supported by the Marshall Plan. His international diplomacy, notably the 1952 London Debt Agreement, ensured economic stability. Politically, Adenauer’s coalition-building and NATO alignment secured West Germany’s recovery, although his focus on Western integration sparked debate over reunification delays.

An intriguing mystery, the Dyatlov Pass incident historiography is marked by shifting explanations. Early Soviet investigations concluded an "unknown compelling force" caused the hikers' deaths, offering little clarity. Post-Soviet scrutiny introduced theories ranging from secret military tests, involving radiation or infrasound, to an avalanche, though the unusual injuries and tent damage complicated the latter. Indigenous Mansi involvement was largely dismissed. More recent hypotheses incorporate katabatic winds creating unusual conditions or a "Karman vortex street" inducing panic. Despite extensive re-examination and scientific modelling, no single theory fully accounts for all the evidence, leaving the precise sequence of events a persistent subject of debate and speculation.

To investigate the reasons why Nehru introduced his 'Forward Policy', this student considered the claims of some historians, such as Bipan Chandra, who've argued that Nehru's decision to introduce the Forward Policy in the early 1960s was driven by a desire to consolidate India's territorial claims and assert its dominance in the region, particularly in the wake of the 1962 Sino-Indian War. Conversely, other scholars, including Neville Maxwell, have argued that Nehru's policy was motivated by a misplaced faith in the efficacy of diplomacy and a failure to adequately comprehend the military and strategic realities of the situation. This dichotomy produced a solid IA highlighting Nehru's idealism as well as his pragmatism, as the primary drivers behind the Forward Policy, reflecting fundamentally differing interpretations of his leadership and legacy.

A good topic for an internal assessment, the historiography of Fidel Castro's role in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 varies among scholars. Early Western accounts often portrayed Castro as a secondary figure, with the crisis primarily a U.S.-Soviet confrontation. Revisionist historians argue he played a more active role, pressing Khrushchev to deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba as a deterrent against U.S. aggression. Some depict Castro as reckless, willing to risk nuclear war, while others view him as a pragmatic leader defending Cuban sovereignty. Recent scholarship, incorporating Cuban sources, highlights his diplomatic efforts and influence on Soviet decision-making, though his exact impact remains debated.

The B-59 incident during the Cuban Missile Crisis is subject to varied historical interpretations concerning culpability. Early narratives largely lauded Vasili Arkhipov for preventing a nuclear strike, implicitly blaming the aggressive U.S. naval blockade. Later analyses have examined the stressful conditions faced by the Soviet submariners, arguing that miscommunication and extreme duress contributed to the heightened tension. Some historians point to the U.S. Navy's use of depth charges, albeit non-lethal, as unduly provocative. More nuanced perspectives acknowledge a confluence of factors: the intense Cold War atmosphere, flawed communication protocols on both sides, and the immense pressure bearing down on the individuals involved, thus distributing blame across multiple actors. 

An enduring Cold War mystery, the death of Dag Hammarskjöld on September 18, 1961 has generated sharply divergent historiography. Initial Rhodesian, British, and United Nations inquiries unanimously concluded pilot error or altimeter misreading caused the Ndola crash, officially ruling it an accident despite missing wreckage and incomplete evidence.Post-Soviet declassification from the 1990s onwards brought intense scrutiny, revealing altered radio logs, dismissed African eyewitness reports of a second aircraft and aerial flashes, and the suspiciously unmarked state of Hammarskjöld’s body. Theories shifted decisively toward deliberate sabotage, implicating Belgian colonial circles, Western mining interests in Katanga, mercenary pilots, South African paramilitary groups, and possible CIA or MI6 involvement. Recent UN panels and German academic analyses have judged the accident explanation unsustainable, citing plausible evidence of foul play and the continued withholding of archives by several states. Whilst no theory yet commands universal acceptance and absolute proof remains elusive, the prevailing scholarly consensus now regards Hammarskjöld’s death as a politically motivated assassination arising from his uncompromising defence of Congolese unity against colonial and Cold War resource interests.

Still not accepted by conspiracy nutcases, the assassination of John F. Kennedy has generated extensive historical debate and numerous conspiracy theories. The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone, a finding supported by most respected historians who emphasise forensic evidence and Oswald's Marxist sympathies. However, critics argue that the Commission overlooked inconsistencies and potential involvement of organisations like the CIA, Mafia, or Cuban exiles. Recent scholarship often focuses on contextualising the assassination within Cold War tensions and societal unrest. Despite ongoing speculation, the majority of historians maintain that Oswald was the sole perpetrator, whilst acknowledging the enduring public fascination with alternative explanations.

Certainly not the finest IA produced by a student this centres on whether amalgamation or tribalism was the greater catalyst for the Biafran War. Traditionally, the war has been attributed to the British colonial policy of amalgamation, which arbitrarily merged diverse ethnic and cultural groups into a single entity without regard for existing divisions. This artificial unification is argued to have sown seeds of discord among the regions. However, tribalism, driven by deep-seated ethnic animosities and internal power struggles, played a significant role in escalating tensions. Nwankwo and Ifejika Samuel's "The Making of a Nation-Biafra" highlights indigenous contributions to intergroup hatred, whilst Madiebo’s "The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War" underscores British influence. Both sources suggest that attributing sole blame to colonial policies overlooks the complexities of local dynamics in fuelling the conflict.

The historiography of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, passed in 1964, is debated among historians. Early accounts, aligned with American government narratives, justified the resolution as a response to alleged North Vietnamese attacks on American ships, legitimising escalation in Vietnam. Revisionist scholars, however, argue that the incidents were exaggerated or fabricated, criticising the resolution as a pretext for war. Recent studies, using declassified documents, highlight the Johnson administration's manipulation of evidence to gain Congressional support. Whilst some historians see the resolution as a necessary Cold War measure, others view it as an unjustified expansion of executive power, reflecting broader debates on American imperialism.

“Did Mao initiate the Cultural Revolution or was he driven by events beyond control?” The genesis of the Cultural Revolution remains a significant point of historical contention regarding Mao Tse-tung's evil agency. One perspective firmly asserts Mao's initiating role, viewing the movement as a deliberate attempt to purge perceived revisionist elements within the Party, reassert his ideological authority, and reignite revolutionary fervour amongst the populace, particularly the youth. Conversely, some interpretations suggest a more reactive Mao, propelled by escalating power struggles, radicalised student movements, and a breakdown of established political norms, which he then sought to harness and direct. More nuanced analyses propose a synthesis, arguing that whilst Mao undoubtedly launched the initial campaign with specific aims, the subsequent intensity and chaotic trajectory far exceeded his original intentions, forcing him to adapt and respond to unforeseen developments and the initiatives of various factions.

This investigation assesses the role of the Chinese Communist Party in the massacre and cannibalism of Guangxi Province in 1968, during the peak of the Cultural Revolution: was the central government responsible for the death of 200,000 people? The historiography surrounding the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) responsibility for the massacre and cannibalism during the Guangxi factional wars of 1968 is fraught with controversy and limited documentation. Traditionalist historians often attribute the atrocities to the chaos and power struggles that emerged during the Cultural Revolution, suggesting that local factions acted independently of central CCP control. Revisionist scholars, however, argue that the CCP bore significant responsibility, either through direct involvement or by fostering an environment that enabled such extreme violence. More recent studies have begun to uncover new evidence, including survivor testimonies and local archives, which point to a more complex interplay between central directives and local initiatives. This ongoing debate highlights the challenges of attributing responsibility in a period marked by extreme political turmoil and violence.

The investigation explores whether the Soviet submarine K-129 was attempting a nuclear strike when it sank in 1968. Two primary sources are evaluated: David H. Sharp’s “The CIA’s Greatest Covert Operation” (2012) and Kenneth Sewell and Clint Richmond’s “Red Star Rogue” (2005). Sharp, a former CIA insider, details the recovery of K-129, suggesting it sank 1,600 nautical miles from Hawaii, too far for a missile strike, implying no attack was planned. Sewell, a Navy veteran, argues the submarine sank 303 nautical miles from Hawaii, suggesting a rogue mission to strike the U.S. His theory relies on declassified documents but includes speculation. Both sources face limitations: Sharp’s account is censored by the CIA, and Sewell’s narrative blends fact with conjecture. Technical evidence, like SOSUS recordings, lacks clarity on whether an implosion or explosion caused the sinking. Damage to the submarine’s missile silos is noted, but its cause remains uncertain. The conflicting coordinates and incomplete data highlight challenges in assessing classified events with both sources offering partial insights but no definitive proof of a nuclear strike attempt.

The impact of Leon Uris's 'Exodus' on Soviet Jewish emigration to Israel between 1970 and 1974 remains a complex and debated topic chosen by this student who not only received an 'A' for this Extended Essay, a '7' for the course at HL, but a remarkable 44/45 in the IBDP. Some historians attribute significant influence to the novel, arguing it ignited a sense of Zionist identity and emboldened Soviet Jews to seek repatriation. Others downplay its direct role, emphasising instead the impact of broader geopolitical factors, such as the Six-Day War and growing international pressure on the Soviet Union regarding human rights. Further arguments highlight the increasing awareness of Jewish cultural heritage within the USSR and the discriminatory policies faced by Soviet Jews, factors seen as more directly influencing the emigration wave. Assessing Exodus's precise contribution necessitates considering these intertwined social, political, and cultural forces.

A compelling internal assessment, this looks into the historiography surrounding Lin Biao's involvement in the 1971 incident, often referred to as the Lin Biao Incident. Officially, the Chinese Communist Party maintains that Lin, fearing exposure for a failed coup attempt against Mao tse-tung, attempted to flee to the Soviet Union, resulting in his death in a plane crash in Mongolia. However, this narrative is contested. Some scholars, drawing on declassified documents and survivor accounts, question the veracity of the official account, suggesting a potential power struggle within the Party leadership as a more plausible explanation. Others posit that Lin may have been framed, or that the circumstances of his death were deliberately misrepresented. Alternative interpretations range from accidental death to forced escape. The lack of conclusive evidence and the politically sensitive nature of the event in China continue to fuel scholarly disagreement, making definitive conclusions about Lin's precise role exceedingly difficult to ascertain.

The scandal surrounding the Munich Police Department's culpability for the inadequate response to the 1972 Olympic massacre presents contrasting scholarly perspectives which suit the any History research investigation. Some historians, notably Reeve and Groussard, argue the department's fundamental unpreparedness and tactical misjudgements were principally responsible for the tragic outcome. Conversely, scholars such as Klein and Schreiber contend that structural deficiencies in West German security architecture, coupled with post-war constraints on police militarisation, created insurmountable operational limitations. More nuanced analyses from Brundage and Williams suggest responsibility was distributed across multiple institutional failures, including intelligence shortcomings, diplomatic constraints, and the unprecedented nature of the crisis within contemporaneous security paradigms.

The historiographical discourse concerning newspaper coverage of the 1972 Kent State shootings reveals significant scholarly contention. Researchers such as Hensley and Lewis document pronounced ideological divisions, with conservative publications emphasising student aggression whilst liberal outlets accentuated governmental overreaction. Casale and Paskoff's analyses demonstrate substantial factual inconsistencies across contemporaneous reporting, attributable to deadline pressures and restricted access to the scene. Revisionist scholarship from Davies challenges the reliability of both conservative and liberal accounts, whilst Michener's contemporary investigation suggests systematic distortion. Recent archival work by Means and Wasserman indicates that geographical proximity to Kent significantly influenced reportorial accuracy, with Ohio newspapers demonstrating greater factual precision than national counterparts.

Another outstanding Extended Essay from an exceptional student I was privileged to have in my History, Geography and Theory of Knowledge classes looking at the historiographical discourse surrounding Brandt's 1974 downfall. Traditional narratives, exemplified by Merkl and Marshall, posit the Guillaume espionage scandal as the proximate cause, emphasising security breaches as irreconcilable with chancellorship. Revisionist interpretations from Baring and Schöllgen contend the affair merely provided a convenient pretext, whilst underlying economic difficulties and coalition tensions constituted more substantive factors. Ash and Sarotte contextualise the resignation within Cold War intelligence operations, suggesting Eastern Bloc strategic success. Recent scholarship by Faulenbach indicates Brandt's personal exhaustion and fractious party relations had rendered his position untenable, with the Guillaume revelation serving as catalyst rather than cause for an inevitable political demise.

Was Rubin ‘Hurricane’ Carter framed for the 1966 Lafayette Bar triple murder in Paterson, New Jersey? This investigation centres on the June 17, 1966, shooting that killed Jim Oliver, Fred Nauyoks, and Hazel Tanis, and blinded Willie Marins, leading to the arrest and life sentences of Rubin Carter and John Artis. My student effectively uses primary sources from the original 1966 trial, including Paterson Police Department arrest reports, Patty Valentine’s grand-jury testimony identifying the getaway car, Alfred Bello’s statements, and the polygraph examiner John J. McGuire’s conclusion that Carter showed deception. These are critically contrasted with Carter’s own 1974 memoir The Sixteenth Round, which the student demonstrates contains verifiable inconsistencies regarding earlier life events when compared to 1963 Sports Illustrated and Saturday Evening Post interviews.  The analysis astutely highlights how Bob Dylan’s 1975 song “Hurricane” and the later motion picture shifted public perception, transforming a conviction supported by contemporaneous evidence (matching ammunition, failed polygraph, witness identification of the car) into a symbol of racial injustice. By evaluating Valentine’s consistent testimony against Carter’s selective narrative, and noting the absence of racism allegations before the memoir’s publication, the IA successfully interrogates the interplay between evidence, memory, and cultural influence, fulfilling the criteria for historical significance, source criticism, and independent analysis required.

 The historiographical discourse concerning the involvement of the KGB and the Bulgarian State Security Services (DS) in the 1978 assassination of Georgi Markov reveals considerable scholarly divergence. Former DS officer Vladimir Kostov and defectors Oleg Kalugin and Oleg Gordievsky emphasise varying degrees of KGB technical and operational dominance, with Kalugin claiming primary Soviet authorship whilst Kostov stresses Bulgarian initiative. Investigative journalist Khristo Khristov’s unprecedented access to declassified KGB–DS files (2006) provides documentary evidence of poison and weapon transfers, yet highlights selection bias and the systematic destruction of approximately 16,000 DS volumes in 1989–1990. Forensic analyses of the ricin pellet and delivery mechanism consistently point to Soviet technical services, whereas Zhivkov’s repeated requests for assistance and the symbolically timed attack on his birthday underscore Bulgarian agency. Recent witness testimony from Vladimir Mednis (2012) corroborates high-level KGB planning under Yuri Andropov, challenging Kalugin’s later inconsistencies. Collectively, the sources demonstrate that, whilst the operation was joint, the KGB supplied the decisive expertise and matériel, qualifying the traditional view of Bulgaria as a mere Soviet proxy and illustrating the methodological difficulties posed by partial archives in post-communist historiography.

 

The IA examines the legitimacy of the alleged "Shoot to Kill" policy during the Troubles in Northern Ireland, focusing on the Loughgall Ambush on May 8, 1987, where eight IRA members were killed by the SAS. John Stalker's 1988 inquiry, conducted as Deputy Chief Constable, faced RUC obstruction but concluded a policy existed, supported by his findings of extrajudicial killings. Ed Moloney offers a contrasting view, criticising the IRA and showing sympathy for the RUC, though its bias and temporal distance limit its focus on Loughgall. The ambush saw the IRA attack an empty barracks, met with lethal SAS force, raising questions about excessive response. British sources claim the IRA fired first, whilst Irish perspectives argue the SAS initiated the violence, killing most before retaliation. Civilian casualties, including Antony Hughes's death, further fuel the debate. Both governments censored information, fostering conspiracy theories. The study concludes an unspoken "Shoot to Kill" policy likely existed, reflecting ongoing Anglo-Irish tensions with Brexit highlighting the conflict's lasting impact. 

This Extended Essay evaluates the historiography surrounding France’s role in the Rwandan Genocide. Early accusations centred on a deliberate policy of supporting the Hutu-led government, providing military assistance and ideological backing which enabled the genocide’s planning and execution. More recent scholarship, whilst acknowledging a close relationship with the Rwandan state under Habyarimana, offers some nuance this, suggesting a miscalculation of political realities and a failure to comprehend the extremist elements within the regime, rather than active complicity. However, debate persists regarding the extent to which French inaction, motivated by strategic interests and mission civilisatrice ideals, contributed to the unfolding tragedy and subsequent impunity.

Written by a student when teaching in Peking, this is another Extended Essay investigating the Chinese Communist Party's horrific assault on its own unarmed subjects showing the world the nature of the regime. Scholarly debate regarding Deng Xiao Ping's ultimate responsibility for the Tiananmen Square Massacre persists with complexity. Some historians contend that Deng's reformed policies and authoritarian pragmatism paved the way for the tragic events, arguing that his tacit approval culminated in a calculated military response. Others, however, maintain that institutional and bureaucratic forces were predominantly responsible, suggesting that Deng’s role was merely contributory rather than central. Recent archival evidence has provoked renewed reassessment of Deng’s involvement, although consensus remains elusive among academics. This historiographical dispute reflects broader interpretative challenges in analysing the intricate dynamics of Chinese political reform and state control.

This student's Extended Essay on Why Gorbachev agreed to German reunification addresses a sharply focused, highly debatable turning point in twentieth-century history that directly shaped the end of the Cold War, allows rigorous analysis of causation, and demands critical engagement with Soviet, German, and Western perspectives. The essay itself argues that Gorbachev’s consent to reunification on October 3, 1990 was driven by interlocking domestic pressure relieved (and unintentionally unleashed) by glasnost and perestroika, the unsustainable economic crisis in both the USSR and the DDR, the urgent need for Western financial aid and improved relations to salvage his reforms, and his genuine ideological belief in self-determination and a “common European home”. Using primary sources such as Gorbachev’s own Perestroika and speeches, Schäuble’s Der Vertrag, Kohl’s memoirs, and an original 1990 eyewitness interview, together with secondary works by Taubman, Wentker, and Burkhardt (all carefully evaluated with OPCVL), my student concludes that Gorbachev didn't passively surrender East Germany out of weakness but made a deliberate, ultimately tragic strategic choice to sacrifice the DDR in a desperate attempt to save a reformed Soviet Union- a gamble that instead ended the Cold War whilst accelerating the USSR’s dissolution just fourteen months later.
The student’s investigation analyses the persuasive tactics employed by US Secretary of State Colin Powell during his pivotal February 5, 2003, address to the United Nations. The research question specifically focuses on identifying the faulty methods used to present the case for Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. This is an appropriate IBDP History IA because it moves beyond simple narrative to conduct a critical evaluation of evidence and methodology. By systematically comparing Powell’s assertions, such as satellite imagery and audio intercepts, with contemporaneous counter-evidence from sources like UN weapons inspector Hans Blix and former inspector Scott Ritter, the student deconstructs the speech's credibility. The analysis is further strengthened by applying a framework of historical fallacies, identifying tactics such as feigned certainty, misrepresentation of data, and oversimplification. This demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of historical methodology. The work effectively evaluates the value and limitations of its key sources to build a compelling argument that the presentation was a politically motivated performance rather than a factual account, making it an excellent example of historical enquiry and critical analysis. The student’s investigation analyses the persuasive tactics employed by US Secretary of State Colin Powell during his pivotal February 5, 2003, address to the United Nations. The research question specifically focuses on identifying the faulty methods used to present the case for Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. This is an appropriate IBDP History IA because it moves beyond simple narrative to conduct a critical evaluation of evidence and methodology. By systematically comparing Powell’s assertions, such as satellite imagery and audio intercepts, with contemporaneous counter-evidence from sources like UN weapons inspector Hans Blix and former inspector Scott Ritter, the student deconstructs the speech's credibility. The analysis is further strengthened by applying a framework of historical fallacies, identifying tactics such as feigned certainty, misrepresentation of data, and oversimplification. This demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of historical methodology. The work effectively evaluates the value and limitations of its key sources to build a compelling argument that the presentation was a politically motivated performance rather than a factual account, making it an excellent example of historical enquiry and critical analysis.This IA analyses the persuasive tactics employed by American Secretary of State Colin Powell during his pivotal February 5, 2003, address to the United Nations. The research question specifically focuses on identifying the faulty methods used to present the case for Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. It's an appropriate IBDP History IA that goes beyond simple narrative to conduct a critical evaluation of evidence and methodology. By systematically comparing Powell’s assertions, such as satellite imagery and audio intercepts, with counter-evidence from sources like UN weapons inspector Hans Blix and former inspector Scott Ritter, the student deconstructs the speech's credibility. The analysis is further strengthened by applying a framework of historical fallacies, identifying tactics such as feigned certainty, misrepresentation of data, and oversimplification. It offers a rather sophisticated understanding of historical methodology, evaluating the value and limitations of its key sources to build a compelling argument that the presentation was a politically motivated performance rather than a factual account, making it a solid example of historical enquiry and critical analysis.

Written only a few years after the event in question, I'm not sure how this ended up getting past the requirement not to do a topic within the last ten years. As it is, debate regarding the American Patriot Act's constitutionality centres on its expansion of governmental surveillance powers versus fundamental rights. Detractors argue that provisions, particularly concerning bulk data collection (Section 215) and National Security Letters, violated the Fourth Amendment's protections against unreasonable searches and seizures, alongside First Amendment free speech concerns. Conversely, supporters maintain the Act was a necessary response to terrorism, implemented with sufficient judicial oversight and statutory safeguards to prevent abuse. They cite legal precedents upholding surveillance in national security contexts. The judiciary offered mixed rulings, ultimately leading to reforms like the USA Freedom Act, suggesting a complex constitutional landscape rather than outright unconstitutionality.

This EE in Film Studies investigates how effectively Kubrick’s cinematic adaptation of A Clockwork Orange captures the essence of Anthony Burgess’ novella, focusing on the power of its language and themes. Utilising C.S. Peirce’s semiotic theory, it contrasts literature’s use of “signs” with film’s “icons” to analyse the translation of Burgess’ dystopian narrative, particularly its Nadsat argot and themes of violence and free will. It examines key scenes such as the Korova Milkbar and Ludovico Technique, to assess Kubrick’s cinematic techniques—camera angles, music, and props—against Burgess’s literary devices like repetition, onomatopoeia, and imagery to argue Kubrick effectively conveys Alex’s trivialisation of violence and the novella’s moral complexities, though engages with criticisms, notably Burgess’s claim that the film glorifies violence and dilutes Alex’s irredeemability. Despite debates over thematic fidelity and characterisation, it concludes that Kubrick’s adaptation preserves and amplifies the novella’s impact, contributing to its cultural legacy whilst highlighting the intricate relationship between literature and cinema.

This Visual Arts EE from one of my truly outstanding students examining how 20th-century Olympic posters used graphic design to promote national identity easily earned an 'A' from the IBO due to its thorough research, clear structure, and insightful analysis. It effectively traces the evolution of graphic design, establishing its role as a communication tool, particularly in branding national identity through Olympic posters. Focusing on the Mexico City 1968, Moscow 1980, and Seoul 1988 posters, it provides a diverse, chronologically varied sample that highlights distinct cultural and historical contexts. The methodology is robust, combining IOC reports with secondary sources on design principles, ensuring a rigorous analysis. The essay excels in connecting visual elements—typography, colour, and symbolism—to broader socio-political goals, demonstrating how each poster reflected its nation’s identity and Olympic values. 

This Extended Essay in Music examines the influence of Buddy Holly, Minimalism, and Indian music on The Beatles’ oeuvre through three carefully selected songs: “In Spite of All the Danger,” “Tomorrow Never Knows,” and “Within You Without You.” There's analysis, comparing musical structures, chord progressions, and instrumentation with clarity, supported by detailed figures and references to primary sources, such as Beatles’ recordings and scholarly articles. Its interdisciplinary approach, blending music theory with cultural context, highlights The Beatles’ evolution from early rock to experimental and Indian-inspired sounds, showcasing their amazing adaptability and innovation. 

This Film Extended Essay, earned an A from the IBO for its focused analysis of how Christopher Nolan’s usage of abstract story concepts and narrative encourage audience immersion within his films. It explores six films—Inception, Interstellar, Tenet, The Prestige, Memento, and Oppenheimer. It applies Freud’s Cognitive Psychoanalytic Theory and Bordwell’s contingent universals to analyse scenes like Inception’s folding city and Memento’s reverse chronology, demonstrating how Nolan’s manipulation of time, space, and perception creates cognitive and emotional engagement. Supported by diverse sources—scholarly articles, interviews, and critiques—the essay showcases rigorous research whilst offering original insights into Nolan’s puzzle-like storytelling. 

 Making a nice interdisciplinary link with my History course, this EE on Florian Henckel von Donnersmarcks The Lives of Others serves as an exemplary Language and Literature investigation, analysing the psychological impact of surveillance and oppression in the DDR through three main characters: Georg Dreyman, Christa-Maria Sieland, and Gerd Wiesler. It skilfully examines how state repression affects individual psyches, and its use of primary sources, including the film and an actual interview with producer Max Wiedemann, alongside secondary studies on Stasi methods, ensured a robust evidential base. Applying psychological concepts like the drama triangle added sophistication, showing interdisciplinary engagement. The essay also draws parallels between historical oppression and modern issues like cyberbullying, highlighting its relevance.

Selection IBDP History Internal Assessment IA examples Extended Essay EE samples high-scoring 7/7 best History IA 2020-2025 research questions topics exemplar essays mark schemes guide IB History Internal Assessment criteria investigation reflection RPPF bibliography sample IAs Extended Essays history topics WWII Holocaust Cold War Civil Rights Movement Indian Independence Chinese Civil War Cuban Revolution Apartheid South Africa German unification Italian unification Russian Revolution Spanish Civil War interwar years authoritarian states Hitler Stalin Mao Castro Mussolini IB History IA EE examples 2024 2025 scoring 6/7 7/7 model answers research question formulation historical investigation extended essay history criteria A B C D E assessment guide past student work IBDP History resources download pdf exemplar internal assessments extended essays history topics list best practice research methodology academic honesty