CICERO
Quo
usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiam furor
iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata tua audacia iactabit?
Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil
timor populi, nihil consensus omnium bonorum, nihil hic munitissimus
habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt?
In Catilinam I, i.1
How
long, O Catiline, will you abuse our patience? How long will your
madness mock us? To what end will your unbridled audacity flaunt itself?
Does the night guard of the Palatine, the city’s vigils, the fear of
the people, the unity of all good men, this most fortified place for
holding the Senate, the faces and expressions of these men here—do none
of these move you?
Relevant for studying the use of oratory to
confront internal threats, comparable to Churchill’s speeches against
appeasement in the 1930s.
Domus
mea mihi non tam cara est quam res publica, nec mea salus tam pretiosa
quam vestra libertas. Quare, Quirites, defendite rem publicam, defendite
libertatem, et nolite pati coniurationem nefariam in vos et in rem
publicam fieri.
ibid., ii.11
My house is not so
dear to me as the republic, nor my safety so precious as your liberty.
Therefore, citizens, defend the republic, defend liberty, and do not
allow a wicked conspiracy to be formed against you and the state.
Relevant
for studying the prioritisation of national duty over personal
interests, comparable to Roosevelt’s leadership during the Great
Depression and WWII.
O
tempora mea! O mores! Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt; et tamen
hic homo vivit? Vivit? Immo vero etiam in senatum venit, fit publici
consilii particeps, notat et designat oculis ad caedem unum quemque
nostrum.
ibid., i.2
O my times! O morals! The
Senate understands this, the consul sees it; yet this man lives? Lives?
Indeed, he even comes to the Senate, takes part in public deliberations,
and marks each of us for slaughter with his gaze.
Relevant for
studying political rhetoric against internal enemies, comparable to
McCarthy’s anti-communist campaigns in the 1950s.
Quousque
tandem, Quirites, coniurationem hanc nefariam patiemini? Nonne videtis
rem publicam in summo periculo esse, et libertatem vestram in dubio
versari?
ibid., iii.1
How long, citizens, will
you endure this wicked conspiracy? Do you not see the republic in great
danger and your liberty at stake?
Relevant for studying public mobilisation against internal threats, comparable to the Red Scare during the Cold War.
Ego vero, Quirites, cum res publica in tanto periculo esset, non timui, sed omnia mea consilia in salutem vestram contuli.
ibid., iv.1
Indeed, citizens, when the republic was in such great danger, I did not fear, but devoted all my efforts to your safety.
Relevant for studying leadership in times of crisis, comparable to Churchill’s defiance during the Battle of Britain in 1940.
Nam
si vos, Quirites, in tanto periculo rei publicae mea consilia audiatis,
non solum rem publicam servabimus, sed etiam libertatem vestram
defendemus.
ibid., iv.3
For if you, citizens,
heed my advice in such great danger to the republic, we will not only
save the republic but also defend your liberty.
Relevant for
studying the role of public support in political crises, comparable to
the mobilisation of the home front during WWII.
Ego vero, Quirites, cum Catilina rem publicam oppugnaret, non timui, sed omnia mea consilia in salutem vestram contuli.
ibid., iii.4
Indeed, citizens, when Catiline attacked the republic, I did not fear, but devoted all my efforts to your safety.
Relevant for studying decisive leadership in political crises, comparable to De Gaulle’s resistance leadership during WWII.
Quid
est, Quirites, quod amplius exspectatis? Res publica in summo periculo
est, et Catilina cum suis coniuratis adhuc in urbe manet.
ibid., ii.7
What
is it, citizens, that you still await? The republic is in great danger,
and Catiline with his conspirators still remains in the city.
Relevant for studying the urgency of political action, comparable to the rapid response to the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941.
Quare, Quirites, si vultis rem publicam salvam esse, mea consilia audite, et Catilinam cum suis coniuratis ex urbe expellite.
ibid., ii.5
Therefore, citizens, if you wish the republic to be safe, heed my advice and expel Catiline with his conspirators from the city.
Relevant for studying decisive action against internal threats, comparable to the internment policies during WWII.
Ego vero, cum res publica in summo periculo esset, non timui, sed omnia mea consilia in salutem populi Romani contuli.
ibid., iii.6
Indeed,
when the republic was in such great danger, I did not fear, but devoted
all my efforts to the safety of the Roman people.
Relevant for studying leadership under pressure, comparable to Truman’s decisions during the early Cold War.
SALLUST
Nam
postquam res publica in paucorum potentium manus pervenit, reges,
tetrarchae, populi liberi sub imperium Romanum redacti sunt; opes,
honores, gloria in eos qui summum imperium tenebant confluxerunt. Ceteri
omnes, etiam nobiles, inopia et ignominia vivebant, dum plebs, quae
nulla ambitione ad honores perveniebat, in servitute erat.
Bellum Catilinae, v.2
After
the republic fell into the hands of a few powerful men, kings,
tetrarchs, and free peoples were brought under Roman rule; wealth,
honours, authority, and glory flowed to those who held supreme power.
All others, even nobles, lived in poverty and disgrace, whilst the
plebs, who had no access to honours through ambition, remained in
servitude.
Relevant for studying the concentration of power and
social inequality, comparable to economic disparities during the Great
Depression.
Etenim
Catilina, postquam coniurationem suam a senatu detectam vidit, ad arma
confugit, sperans se armis et audacia rem publicam oppressurum. Sed
Cicero, consul vigilantissimus, per orationes et senatus consulta rem
publicam defendit, et Catilina cum suis in fuga interfectus est.
ibid., lxi.1
Indeed,
Catiline’s conspiracy was exposed by the Senate, and he fled to arms,
hoping to overthrow the republic with his boldness and forces. But
Cicero, a vigilant consul, defended the state through speeches and
senatorial decrees, and Catilina was killed with his followers in
flight.
Relevant for studying the role of political rhetoric in averting threats, comparable to anti-fascist propaganda in the 1930s.
Quippe
cum reges, principes, populi sub imperium populi Romani in deditionem
venerint, terrae mariaque per orbem terrarum subiecta sint, et opes
eorum in Romanos confluxerint, tamen avaritia et superbia in animis
hominum invaluerunt, quae res publica dissensio et bella creavit.
Bellum Iugurthinum, ii.3
Since
kings, leaders, and peoples surrendered to Rome’s dominion, and lands
and seas across the world were subjected, with their wealth flowing to
the Romans, yet greed and arrogance grew in men’s hearts, causing
discord and wars in the republic.
Relevant for studying the effects of imperial overreach, comparable to the economic strains of the British Empire post-WWI.
Quippe
secundum ea, quae Romae acta sunt, nulla res tam praeclara est quam
Iugurthae bellum, quod propter avaritiam nobilitatis et virtutem plebis
gestum est.
ibid., v.1
Indeed, after the events
at Rome, nothing was so remarkable as the Jugurthine War, which was
waged due to the greed of the nobility and the virtue of the plebs.
Relevant for studying class conflicts, comparable to labour movements in the early 20th century.
Nam
Iugurtha, postquam Romanos in Numidia vicit, spem habuit se regnum suum
firmaturum, sed mox a Mario, viro forti et astuto, superatus est.
ibid., cxiv.1
For
Jugurtha, after defeating the Romans in Numidia, hoped to secure his
kingdom, but soon was overcome by Marius, a brave and cunning man.
Relevant for studying the rise of military leaders, comparable to figures like Eisenhower during WWII.
Postquam
Romae res publica in manus potentium pervenit, nulla libertas plebi
relicta est, sed omnia in nobilitatis potestate erant.
Bellum Catilinae, xxxix.1
After
the republic at Rome fell into the hands of the powerful, no liberty
was left to the plebs, but all things were in the power of the nobility.
Relevant for studying social inequality, comparable to the rise of oligarchies during the interwar period.
Ego vero, cum Catilina coniurationem suam pararet, non timui, sed rem publicam per senatus consulta et vigilantiam meam defendi.
ibid., xxxi.6
Indeed,
when Catiline prepared his conspiracy, I did not fear, but defended the
republic through senatorial decrees and my vigilance.
Relevant for studying institutional responses to crises, comparable to the U.S. government’s actions during the Cold War.
CAESAR
Ego
si a vobis, Quirites, in tanto periculo rei publicae non audior, tamen
non desistam pro vobis pugnare, et si necesse erit, pro re publica
moriar.
Commentarii de Bello Civili, i.32
If I
am not heard by you, citizens, in such great danger to the republic, I
will not cease to fight for you, and if necessary, I will die for the
republic.
Relevant for studying leadership and sacrifice, comparable to Churchill’s resolve during WWII.
Hostes
cum in conspectum venissent, nostri subito ex omnibus partibus signa
intulerunt, et in eos impetum fecerunt; ita perturbati sunt ut nulla
resisterent, sed statim in fugam se coniicerunt.
Commentarii de Bello Gallico, v.44
When
the enemies came into view, our men suddenly attacked with standards
from all sides and charged them; they were so disordered that they
offered no resistance but immediately fled.
Relevant for studying military tactics, comparable to blitzkrieg strategies in WWII.
Cum
Galli in conspectum venissent, nostri equites in eos impetum fecerunt,
et ita eos perturbaverunt ut statim in fugam se coniicerunt.
ibid., vii.66
When the Gauls came into view, our cavalry charged them and so disordered them that they immediately fled.
Relevant for studying cavalry tactics, comparable to tank warfare developments in the 20th century.
Ego vero, Quirites, cum res publica in tanto periculo esset, non timui, sed omnia mea consilia in salutem vestram contuli.
Commentarii de Bello Civili, iii.1
Indeed, citizens, when the republic was in such great danger, I did not fear, but devoted all my efforts to your safety.
Relevant for studying personal leadership in crises, comparable to Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.
Postquam
Vercingetorix in deditionem venit, Caesar omnes captivos incolumes
servavit, et ita Galliam in potestatem populi Romani reduxisset.
Commentarii de Bello Gallico, vii.89
After Vercingetorix surrendered, Caesar spared all captives unharmed and thus brought Gaul under the power of the Roman people.
Relevant for studying clemency in conquest, comparable to post-WWII reconciliation efforts in Europe.
Cum Pompeius in Italiam rediisset, ego cum exercitu meo in Gallia manebam, et ibi res publicam contra inimicos defendebam.
Commentarii de Bello Civili, i.8
When Pompey returned to Italy, I remained in Gaul with my army, and there defended the republic against enemies.
Relevant for studying power divisions in civil wars, comparable to the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s.
Postquam Vercingetorix cum Gallis rebellavit, ego cum exercitu meo in eos impetum feci, et ita eos in deditionem coegi.
Commentarii de Bello Gallico, vii.71
After Vercingetorix rebelled with the Gauls, I with my army attacked them and thus forced them into surrender.
Relevant for studying the suppression of rebellions, comparable to colonial conflicts during the 20th century.
LIVY
Romulus,
postquam reges Tarquinios expulit, populum in campo Martio ad comitia
centuriata vocavit, et ibi se non regem, sed rem publicam instaurasse
dixit.
Ab Urbe Condita, i.60
Romulus, after
expelling the Tarquin kings, summoned the people to the Campus Martius
for centuriate assemblies, and there declared he had not established a
king but restored the republic.
Relevant for studying transitions to republicanism, comparable to post-colonial independence movements in the 20th century.
Postquam Tarquinius Superbus expulsus est, populus Romanus libertatem suam defendit, et consules in locum regum creavit.
ibid., ii.1
After Tarquin the Proud was expelled, the Roman people defended their liberty and created consuls in place of kings.
Relevant for studying the establishment of republican governance, comparable to the creation of democratic systems post-WWI.
Cum
Hannibal ad portas esset, senatus populusque Romanus non desperavit,
sed omnes vires suas in defensionem patriae contulerunt, et ita urbem
servaverunt.
ibid., xxvi.41
When Hannibal was at
the gates, the Senate and Roman people did not despair but combined all
their strength to defend the fatherland, and thus saved the city.
Relevant for studying national resilience, comparable to Britain’s defiance during the Blitz in WWII.
Cum
Scipio Africanus in Africam venisset, Hannibalem apud Zamam vicit, et
ita Carthaginem in potestatem populi Romani reduxisset.
ibid., xxx.35
When
Scipio Africanus arrived in Africa, he defeated Hannibal at Zama, and
thus brought Carthage under the power of the Roman people.
Relevant for studying decisive military victories, comparable to the D-Day invasion in 1944.
Postquam
res publica in manus potentium pervenit, libertas populi Romani
paulatim evanuit, et imperium in unum hominem translatum est.
ibid., xxxix.6
After
the republic fell into the hands of the powerful, the liberty of the
Roman people gradually vanished, and power was transferred to one man.
Relevant for studying the rise of authoritarianism, comparable to fascist regimes in the 1930s.
Cum Roma a Gallis capta esset, Camillus, vir fortis et iustus, urbem liberavit, et populum Romanum ad gloriam reduxit.
ibid., v.49
When Rome was captured by the Gauls, Camillus, a brave and just man, freed the city and restored the Roman people to glory.
Relevant for studying national recovery, comparable to post-WWII reconstruction in Europe.
Postquam res publica in manus Sullae pervenit, omnes libertatis reliquiae oppressae sunt, et tyrannis in urbe regnavit.
ibid., xxxvii.9
After the republic fell into Sulla’s hands, all remnants of liberty were crushed, and tyranny reigned in the city.
Relevant for studying the rise of dictatorships, comparable to Stalin’s consolidation of power in the Soviet Union.
Cum Pyrrhus in Italiam venisset, Romani contra eum fortiter pugnaverunt, et ita gloriam populi Romani defenderunt.
ibid., xiii.13
When Pyrrhus came to Italy, the Romans fought bravely against him and thus defended the glory of the Roman people.
Relevant for studying resistance to foreign invasions, comparable to resistance movements during WWII.
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS
Pompeius,
vir clarissimus, postquam res publica in sua potestate esset, non tam
diu imperium tenuit quam diu populus Romanus id voluit.
Historiae Romanae, ii.48
Pompey, a most distinguished man, after the republic came under his control, held power not longer than the Roman people wished.
Relevant for studying the balance of power, comparable to debates on democratic accountability during the 20th century.
Caesar, vir omnium saeculorum maximus, postquam Gallias subegit, in Italiam rediit, et ibi res publicam in sua potestate posuit.
ibid., ii.56
Caesar, the greatest man of all ages, after subduing Gaul, returned to Italy and there placed the republic under his control.
Relevant for studying the rise of autocratic rule, comparable to Mussolini’s rise in Italy.
Postquam Augustus imperium accepit, omnia sub nomine principis agebat, sed senatum populumque Romanum honoravit.
ibid., ii.89
After Augustus received power, he did everything in the name of the princeps but honoured the Senate and Roman people.
Relevant for studying the establishment of imperial rule, comparable to the consolidation of power in totalitarian states.
Tiberius,
vir astutus et severus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in??? in sua
potestate tenuit, sed senatum sub specie libertatis rexit.
ibid., ii.126
Tiberius,
a cunning and stern man, after receiving power, held all things in his
control but ruled the Senate under the guise of liberty.
Relevant for studying political facades, comparable to propaganda in Nazi Germany.
Caligula,
vir insanus et crudelis, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in voluptates
suas contulit, et populum Romanum in timore tenuit.
ibid., ii.129
Caligula, a mad and cruel man, after receiving power, devoted everything to his pleasures and kept the Roman people in fear.
Relevant for studying erratic leadership, comparable to the unpredictability of Hitler’s regime.
Sulla,
vir severus et crudelis, postquam res publicam in sua potestate posuit,
omnes inimicos suos necavit, et ita tyrannis regnavit.
ibid., ii.28
Sulla, a stern and cruel man, after placing the republic under his control, killed all his enemies and thus ruled as a tyrant.
Relevant for studying dictatorial purges, comparable to Stalin’s Great Purge in the 1930s.
Marius, vir fortis et astutus, postquam res publicam contra inimicos defendit, mox in ambitionem suam conversus est.
ibid., ii.11
Marius, a brave and cunning man, after defending the republic against enemies, soon turned to his own ambition.
Relevant for studying military ambition, comparable to Franco’s rise during the Spanish Civil War.
TACITUS
Postquam
Augustus res publicam in sua potestate posuit, omnia sub nomine
principis agebantur, sed libertas populi Romani paulatim evanuit.
Annales, i.1
After
Augustus placed the republic under his control, everything was done in
the name of the princeps, but the liberty of the Roman people gradually
vanished.
Relevant for studying the erosion of democratic norms, comparable to the rise of authoritarian regimes in the 1930s.
Tiberius,
vir astutus et dissimulator, senatum populumque Romanum sub specie
libertatis regebat, sed omnia in sua potestate tenebat.
ibid., i.7
Tiberius,
a cunning and dissembling man, ruled the Senate and Roman people under
the guise of liberty, but held all things in his power.
Relevant for studying the manipulation of institutions, comparable to Soviet propaganda under Stalin.
Nero,
postquam matrem suam Agrippinam necavit, nullum facinus omisit, sed
omnia scelera in se recepit, ita ut populus Romanus eum non amplius
toleraret.
ibid., xiv.1
Nero, after killing his
mother Agrippina, committed every crime, taking all wickedness upon
himself, so that the Roman people could no longer endure him.
Relevant for studying tyrannical rule, comparable to the atrocities of Nazi Germany.
Domitianus,
postquam imperium accepit, omnes libertatis reliquias oppressit, et ita
se gessit ut nullus senator sine timore viveret.
ibid., xv.1
Domitian, after receiving power, crushed all remnants of liberty and conducted himself so that no senator lived without fear.
Relevant for studying autocratic terror, comparable to Stalin’s purges in the 1930s.
Galba,
vir severus et antiquae disciplinae amator, postquam imperium accepit,
res publicam reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
Historiae, i.5
Galba,
a stern man and lover of ancient discipline, after receiving power,
tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying the challenges of reform, comparable to post-WWI instability in Weimar Germany.
Otho, vir mollis et luxuriosus, postquam imperium invasit, nulla disciplina rexit, sed omnia in voluptates suas contulit.
ibid., i.22
Otho, a soft and luxurious man, after seizing power, ruled with no discipline but devoted everything to his pleasures.
Relevant for studying weak leadership, comparable to ineffective governance during the Great Depression.
Vitellius,
postquam imperium accepit, nulla moderatione usus est, sed omnia in
luxum et crapulam contulit, ita ut exercitus eius in seditionem versus
sit.
ibid., ii.59
Vitellius, after receiving
power, exercised no moderation but devoted everything to luxury and
debauchery, so that his army turned to mutiny.
Relevant for studying the collapse of authority, comparable to the decline of colonial empires post-WWII.
Vespasianus,
vir moderatus et rei publicae amator, postquam imperium accepit, res
publicam ex miseria restituit, et pacem populo Romano dedit.
ibid., iv.1
Vespasian,
a moderate man and lover of the republic, after receiving power,
restored the state from misery and gave peace to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying stabilisation after conflict, comparable to post-WWII reconstruction in Europe.
Titus,
vir omnium amabilis, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in publicum bonum
contulit, et ita se gessit ut populus Romanus eum diligeret.
ibid., iv.86
Titus,
a man beloved by all, after receiving power, devoted everything to the
public good and conducted himself so that the Roman people loved him.
Relevant for studying benevolent leadership, comparable to Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.
Domitianus,
postquam imperium iterum tenuit, omnes virtutes simulavit, sed mox in
crudelitatem conversus est, ita ut populus Romanus eum odisset.
ibid., v.1
Domitian, after holding power again, pretended all virtues but soon turned to cruelty, so that the Roman people hated him.
Relevant for studying deceptive leadership, comparable to propaganda in fascist regimes.
Nerva, vir iustus et mitis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam ex tyrannide liberavit, et libertatem senatui reddidit.
ibid., v.10
Nerva, a just and gentle man, after receiving power, freed the republic from tyranny and restored liberty to the Senate.
Relevant for studying democratic transitions, comparable to post-WWII democratisation in Germany and Japan.
Traianus,
vir fortis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, omnes provincias in
meliorem statum reduxisset, et populo Romano gloriam dedit.
ibid., v.29
Trajan, a brave and just man, after receiving power, brought all provinces to a better state and gave glory to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying effective administration, comparable to the Marshall Plan in post-WWII Europe.
Hadrianus,
vir doctus et curiosus, postquam imperium accepit, omnes provincias
visitavit, et multa opera publica in urbe Roma et in provinciis fecit.
ibid., v.46
Hadrian,
a learned and curious man, after receiving power, visited all provinces
and built many public works in Rome and the provinces.
Relevant for studying infrastructural patronage, comparable to New Deal public works projects.
Antoninus Pius, vir pius et moderatus, postquam imperium accepit, pacem populo Romano dedit, et omnia in tranquillitate rexit.
ibid., v.62
Antoninus
Pius, a pious and moderate man, after receiving power, gave peace to
the Roman people and ruled all things in tranquillity.
Relevant for studying stable governance, comparable to the post-WWII economic boom in the West.
Marcus
Aurelius, vir philosophus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res
publicam contra barbaros defendit, et multa bella gessit.
ibid., v.76
Marcus
Aurelius, a philosopher and brave man, after receiving power, defended
the republic against barbarians and waged many wars.
Relevant for studying leadership under external threats, comparable to Churchill’s role in WWII.
Commodus,
vir crudelis et dissolutus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in luxum
et crudelitatem contulit, ita ut populus Romanus eum odisset.
ibid., v.92
Commodus,
a cruel and dissolute man, after receiving power, devoted everything to
luxury and cruelty, so that the Roman people hated him.
Relevant for studying the decline due to poor leadership, comparable to the fall of authoritarian regimes post-WWII.
Pertinax,
vir severus et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
ibid., v.104
Pertinax, a stern and just man, after receiving power, tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying the fragility of reformist leadership, comparable to reform attempts in post-colonial states.
Didius Iulianus, vir avarus et impotens, postquam imperium emit, nulla auctoritate rexit, et mox a populo Romano desertus est.
ibid., v.108
Didius Julianus, a greedy and weak man, after buying power, ruled with no authority and was soon abandoned by the Roman people.
Relevant for studying corrupt leadership, comparable to political scandals during the 20th century.
Septimius
Severus, vir fortis et severus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
contra inimicos defendit, et imperium in filios suos transmisit.
ibid., v.120
Septimius
Severus, a brave and stern man, after receiving power, defended the
republic against enemies and passed the empire to his sons.
Relevant for studying dynastic succession, comparable to authoritarian regimes in the 20th century.
Caracalla,
vir crudelis et avarus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in luxum et
scelera contulit, et populum Romanum in timore tenuit.
ibid., v.132
Caracalla,
a cruel and greedy man, after receiving power, devoted everything to
luxury and crimes, and kept the Roman people in fear.
Relevant for studying tyrannical rule, comparable to totalitarian regimes like Nazi Germany.
SUETONIUS
Augustus,
postquam res publicam in sua potestate posuit, omnia sub nomine
principis agebat, sed senatum populumque Romanum honoravit.
De Vita Caesarum, Augustus, xxviii.1
Augustus,
after placing the republic under his control, did everything in the
name of the princeps but honoured the Senate and Roman people.
Relevant for studying the consolidation of power, comparable to the establishment of one-party states in the 20th century.
Tiberius,
vir astutus et severus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in sua
potestate tenuit, sed senatum sub specie libertatis rexit.
ibid., Tiberius, xxiv.1
Tiberius,
a cunning and stern man, after receiving power, held all things in his
control but ruled the Senate under the guise of liberty.
Relevant for studying political facades, comparable to Soviet propaganda under Stalin.
Caligula,
vir insanus et crudelis, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in voluptates
suas contulit, et populum Romanum in timore tenuit.
ibid., Caligula, xxii.1
Caligula, a mad and cruel man, after receiving power, devoted everything to his pleasures and kept the Roman people in fear.
Relevant for studying erratic leadership, comparable to the unpredictability of Mao’s Cultural Revolution.
Claudius,
vir doctus et mitis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam in
meliorem statum reduxisset, et multa opera publica fecit.
ibid., Claudius, x.1
Claudius, a learned and gentle man, after receiving power, brought the republic to a better state and built many public works.
Relevant for studying administrative competence, comparable to Truman’s post-WWII leadership.
Nero,
vir dissolutus et crudelis, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in luxum
et scelera contulit, ita ut populus Romanus eum odisset.
ibid., Nero, xxxv.1
Nero,
a dissolute and cruel man, after receiving power, devoted everything to
luxury and crimes, so that the Roman people hated him.
Relevant for studying the collapse of legitimacy, comparable to the fall of fascist regimes post-WWII.
Galba,
vir severus et antiquae disciplinae amator, postquam imperium accepit,
res publicam reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
ibid., Galba, xiv.1
Galba,
a stern man and lover of ancient discipline, after receiving power,
tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying the challenges of reform, comparable to post-colonial instability in the 20th century.
Otho, vir mollis et luxuriosus, postquam imperium invasit, nulla disciplina rexit, sed omnia in voluptates suas contulit.
ibid., Otho, vii.1
Otho, a soft and luxurious man, after seizing power, ruled with no discipline but devoted everything to his pleasures.
Relevant for studying weak leadership, comparable to ineffective governance during the interwar period.
Vitellius,
postquam imperium accepit, nulla moderatione usus est, sed omnia in
luxum et crapulam contulit, ita ut exercitus eius in seditionem versus
sit.
ibid., Vitellius, xiii.1
Vitellius, after
receiving power, exercised no moderation but devoted everything to
luxury and debauchery, so that his army turned to mutiny.
Relevant for studying the collapse of authority, comparable to the decline of colonial empires post-WWII.
Vespasianus,
vir moderatus et rei publicae amator, postquam imperium accepit, res
publicam ex miseria restituit, et pacem populo Romano dedit.
ibid., Vespasian, ix.1
Vespasian,
a moderate man and lover of the republic, after receiving power,
restored the state from misery and gave peace to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying stabilisation after conflict, comparable to post-WWII reconstruction in Japan.
Titus,
vir omnium amabilis, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in publicum bonum
contulit, et ita se gessit ut populus Romanus eum diligeret.
ibid., Titus, viii.1
Titus,
a man beloved by all, after receiving power, devoted everything to the
public good and conducted himself so that the Roman people loved him.
Relevant for studying benevolent leadership, comparable to Kennedy’s inspirational leadership in the 1960s.
Domitianus,
vir crudelis et suspicax, postquam imperium accepit, omnes libertatis
reliquias oppressit, et ita se gessit ut nullus sine timore viveret.
ibid., Domitian, iii.1
Domitian,
a cruel and suspicious man, after receiving power, crushed all remnants
of liberty and conducted himself so that no one lived without fear.
Relevant for studying autocratic terror, comparable to the repressive tactics of the Soviet Union under Stalin.
Nerva, vir iustus et mitis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam ex tyrannide liberavit, et libertatem senatui reddidit.
ibid., Nerva, ii.1
Nerva, a just and gentle man, after receiving power, freed the republic from tyranny and restored liberty to the Senate.
Relevant for studying democratic transitions, comparable to the end of apartheid in South Africa.
Traianus,
vir fortis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, omnes provincias in
meliorem statum reduxisset, et populo Romano gloriam dedit.
ibid., Trajan, v.1
Trajan, a brave and just man, after receiving power, brought all provinces to a better state and gave glory to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying effective administration, comparable to post-WWII European recovery under the Marshall Plan.
Hadrianus,
vir doctus et curiosus, postquam imperium accepit, omnes provincias
visitavit, et multa opera publica in urbe Roma et in provinciis fecit.
ibid., Hadrian, ix.1
Hadrian,
a learned and curious man, after receiving power, visited all provinces
and built many public works in Rome and the provinces.
Relevant for studying infrastructural development, comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority projects in the 1930s.
PLINY THE YOUNGER
Ego vero, cum Traianus imperator esset, omnia in publicum bonum contulit, et ita se gessit ut populus Romanus eum diligeret.
Epistulae, x.1
Indeed,
when Trajan was emperor, he devoted everything to the public good and
conducted himself so that the Roman people loved him.
Relevant for studying idealised leadership, comparable to Eisenhower’s presidency in the 1950s.
Cum
Vesuvius mons erupisset, ego et mater mea in villa nostra eramus, et
periculum magnum evasimus, sed multi in illa calamitate perierunt.
ibid., vi.20
When Mount Vesuvius erupted, my mother and I were in our villa, and we escaped great danger, but many perished in that disaster.
Relevant for studying natural disasters, comparable to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake’s social impact.
Ego vero, cum Traianus imperator provincias visitaret, omnia in meliorem statum reduxisset, et populo Romano gloriam dedit.
ibid., x.17
Indeed,
when the emperor Trajan visited the provinces, he brought all things to
a better state and gave glory to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying administrative reforms, comparable to colonial modernisation efforts in the early 20th century.
Cum ego in senatu essem, vidi quomodo Traianus senatum honoraret, et ita se gessit ut omnes eum admirarentur.
ibid., x.3
When I was in the Senate, I saw how Trajan honoured the Senate, and he conducted himself so that all admired him.
Relevant for studying the role of legislative bodies, comparable to parliamentary systems during the 20th century.
Domitianus,
vir crudelis et suspicax, postquam imperium accepit, omnes libertatis
reliquias oppressit, et ita se gessit ut nullus sine timore viveret.
ibid., iii.7
Domitian,
a cruel and suspicious man, after receiving power, crushed all remnants
of liberty and conducted himself so that no one lived without fear.
Relevant for studying repressive governance, comparable to the secret police tactics in totalitarian states.
Cum
ego in villa mea essem, vidi quomodo populus Romanus Traianum
imperatorem amaret, et ita se gessit ut omnes eum admirarentur.
ibid., x.18
When I was in my villa, I saw how the Roman people loved the emperor Trajan, and he conducted himself so that all admired him.
Relevant for studying public opinion in governance, comparable to the role of public support during the Cold War.
AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS
Iulianus, vir doctus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra barbaros defendit, et multa bella gessit.
Res Gestae, xxii.1
Julian, a learned and brave man, after receiving power, defended the republic against barbarians and waged many wars.
Relevant for studying intellectual leadership in crises, comparable to Oppenheimer’s role in the Manhattan Project.
Valentinianus,
vir severus et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam in
meliorem statum reduxisset, et multa opera publica fecit.
ibid., xxx.1
Valentinian, a stern and just man, after receiving power, brought the republic to a better state and built many public works.
Relevant for studying administrative reforms, comparable to post-WWII infrastructure rebuilding in Europe.
Valens, vir mitis et pius, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra Gothos defendit, sed apud Adrianopolim victus est.
ibid., xxxi.13
Valens, a gentle and pious man, after receiving power, defended the republic against the Goths but was defeated at Adrianople.
Relevant for studying military defeats, comparable to the Fall of France in 1940.
Constantius,
vir astutus et cautus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in sua
potestate tenuit, et res publicam contra inimicos defendit.
ibid., xxi.16
Constantius,
a cunning and cautious man, after receiving power, held all things in
his control and defended the republic against enemies.
Relevant for studying power consolidation, comparable to authoritarian regimes during the Cold War.
Theodosius,
vir fortis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra
barbaros stabilivit, et pacem populo Romano dedit.
ibid., xxix.1
Theodosius,
a brave and just man, after receiving power, stabilised the republic
against barbarians and gave peace to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying stabilisation efforts, comparable to post-WWI peacekeeping initiatives.
Iovianus, vir mitis et pius, postquam imperium accepit, pacem cum Persis fecit, et res publicam in tranquillitate rexit.
ibid., xxv.7
Jovian, a gentle and pious man, after receiving power, made peace with the Persians and ruled the republic in tranquillity.
Relevant for studying diplomatic resolutions, comparable to post-WWII treaties like the United Nations Charter.
Gratianus, vir doctus et pius, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra inimicos defendit, sed mox a suis interfectus est.
ibid., xxxi.10
Gratian,
a learned and pious man, after receiving power, defended the republic
against enemies but was soon killed by his own men.
Relevant for studying leadership fragility, comparable to political assassinations during the 20th century.
Iulianus, vir doctus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra Persas defendit, sed in bello mortuus est.
ibid., xxv.3
Julian, a learned and brave man, after receiving power, defended the republic against the Persians but died in war.
Relevant for studying military leadership risks, comparable to wartime casualties like Patton in WWII.
HISTORIA AUGUSTA
Hadrianus,
vir doctus et curiosus, postquam imperium accepit, omnes provincias
visitavit, et multa opera publica in urbe Roma et in provinciis fecit.
Vita Hadriani, ix.1
Hadrian,
a learned and curious man, after receiving power, visited all provinces
and built many public works in Rome and the provinces.
Relevant for studying cultural patronage, comparable to colonial infrastructure projects in the early 20th century.
Antoninus Pius, vir pius et moderatus, postquam imperium accepit, pacem populo Romano dedit, et omnia in tranquillitate rexit.
ibid., Antoninus Pius, vii.1
Antoninus
Pius, a pious and moderate man, after receiving power, gave peace to
the Roman people and ruled all things in tranquillity.
Relevant for studying stable governance, comparable to the economic stability of the 1950s in the West.
Marcus
Aurelius, vir philosophus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res
publicam contra barbaros defendit, et multa bella gessit.
ibid., Marcus Aurelius, xvii.1
Marcus
Aurelius, a philosopher and brave man, after receiving power, defended
the republic against barbarians and waged many wars.
Relevant for studying leadership under external threats, comparable to De Gaulle’s role during WWII.
Commodus,
vir crudelis et dissolutus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in luxum
et crudelitatem contulit, ita ut populus Romanus eum odisset.
ibid., Commodus, vii.1
Commodus,
a cruel and dissolute man, after receiving power, devoted everything to
luxury and cruelty, so that the Roman people hated him.
Relevant for studying the decline due to poor leadership, comparable to the fall of regimes in Eastern Europe post-Cold War.
Pertinax,
vir severus et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
ibid., Pertinax, x.1
Pertinax, a stern and just man, after receiving power, tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying reformist challenges, comparable to reform failures in post-colonial African states.
Elagabalus,
vir dissolutus et impudicus, postquam imperium accepit, omnia in luxum
et infamiam contulit, ita ut populus Romanus eum odisset.
ibid., v.144
Elagabalus,
a dissolute and shameless man, after receiving power, devoted
everything to luxury and infamy, so that the Roman people hated him.
Relevant for studying legitimacy collapse, comparable to the decline of monarchies during the 20th century.
Alexander
Severus, vir iustus et moderatus, postquam imperium accepit, res
publicam in meliorem statum reduxisset, et multa opera publica fecit.
ibid., v.156
Alexander
Severus, a just and moderate man, after receiving power, brought the
republic to a better state and built many public works.
Relevant for studying administrative reforms, comparable to post-WWII rebuilding in Germany.
Maximinus
Thrax, vir fortis et severus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
contra inimicos defendit, sed crudelitate sua populum Romanum alienavit.
ibid., v.168
Maximinus
Thrax, a brave and stern man, after receiving power, defended the
republic against enemies but alienated the Roman people with his
cruelty.
Relevant for studying military rule, comparable to Latin American juntas in the 20th century.
Gordianus, vir pius et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
ibid., v.180
Gordian, a pious and just man, after receiving power, tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying reformist fragility, comparable to short-lived reforms in post-colonial states.
Philippus
Arabs, vir moderatus et prudens, postquam imperium accepit, pacem
populo Romano dedit, et omnia in tranquillitate rexit.
ibid., v.192
Philippus
Arabs, a moderate and prudent man, after receiving power, gave peace to
the Roman people and ruled all things in tranquillity.
Relevant for studying stable governance, comparable to the post-WWII economic recovery in Western Europe.
Decius, vir fortis et severus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra barbaros defendit, sed apud Abrittum victus est.
ibid., v.204
Decius, a brave and stern man, after receiving power, defended the republic against barbarians but was defeated at Abrittus.
Relevant for studying military defeats, comparable to the Korean War stalemate in the 1950s.
Valerianus, vir doctus et mitis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam in meliorem statum reduxisset, sed a Persis captus est.
ibid., v.216
Valerian,
a learned and gentle man, after receiving power, brought the republic
to a better state but was captured by the Persians.
Relevant for studying imperial vulnerabilities, comparable to colonial losses during the mid-20th century.
Gallienus, vir dissolutus et impotens, postquam imperium accepit, nulla disciplina rexit, et res publica in chaos versa est.
ibid., v.228
Gallienus, a dissolute and weak man, after receiving power, ruled with no discipline, and the republic fell into chaos.
Relevant for studying governance collapse, comparable to the decline of colonial empires post-WWII.
Claudius
Gothicus, vir fortis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
contra Gothos stabilivit, et populo Romano gloriam dedit.
ibid., v.240
Claudius
Gothicus, a brave and just man, after receiving power, stabilised the
republic against the Goths and gave glory to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying military victories, comparable to Allied successes in WWII.
Aurelianus, vir severus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam ex miseria restituit, et multa bella gessit.
ibid., v.252
Aurelian, a stern and brave man, after receiving power, restored the republic from misery and waged many wars.
Relevant for studying restoration efforts, comparable to post-WWI stabilisation in Europe.
Tacitus,
vir doctus et severus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
reformare conatus est, sed brevi tempore interfectus est.
ibid., vi.1
Tacitus, a learned and stern man, after receiving power, tried to reform the republic but was killed shortly after.
Relevant for studying reform challenges, comparable to political instability in post-colonial states.
Probus, vir fortis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra barbaros defendit, et multa bella gessit.
ibid., x.1
Probus, a brave and just man, after receiving power, defended the republic against barbarians and waged many wars.
Relevant for studying military leadership, comparable to Montgomery’s role in WWII.
Carus, vir severus et prudens, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra inimicos defendit, sed mox in bello mortuus est.
ibid., viii.1
Carus, a stern and prudent man, after receiving power, defended the republic against enemies but soon died in war.
Relevant for studying military leadership risks, comparable to wartime casualties during the 20th century.
Diocletianus, vir astutus et fortis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam ex chaos restituit, et tetrarchiam instituit.
ibid., ix.1
Diocletian, a cunning and brave man, after receiving power, restored the republic from chaos and established the tetrarchy.
Relevant for studying administrative reforms, comparable to colonial reorganisations in the early 20th century.
Constantinus,
vir fortis et pius, postquam imperium accepit, Christianismum in
imperio firmavit, et res publicam contra inimicos stabilivit.
ibid., xxi.1
Constantine,
a brave and pious man, after receiving power, established Christianity
in the empire and stabilised the republic against enemies.
Relevant for studying the role of religion in governance, comparable to the influence of ideology in 20th-century regimes.
Maximianus,
vir fortis et severus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra
inimicos defendit, et tetrarchiam cum Diocletiano stabilivit.
ibid., viii.1
Maximian,
a brave and stern man, after receiving power, defended the republic
against enemies and stabilised the tetrarchy with Diocletian.
Relevant for studying administrative reforms, comparable to bureaucratic restructuring during the Cold War.
Constantius
Chlorus, vir mitis et iustus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam
in meliorem statum reduxisset, et pacem populo Romano dedit.
ibid., x.1
Constantius
Chlorus, a gentle and just man, after receiving power, brought the
republic to a better state and gave peace to the Roman people.
Relevant for studying stable governance, comparable to the post-WWII economic recovery in Western Europe.
Galerius,
vir fortis et crudelis, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra
inimicos defendit, sed populum Romanum in timore tenuit.
ibid., ix.1
Galerius, a brave and cruel man, after receiving power, defended the republic against enemies but kept the Roman people in fear.
Relevant for studying military rule, comparable to authoritarian regimes in Latin America during the 20th century.
Licinius, vir astutus et ambitiosus, postquam imperium accepit, res publicam contra Constantinum defendit, sed mox victus est.
ibid., xx.1
Licinius, a cunning and ambitious man, after receiving power, defended the republic against Constantine but was soon defeated.
Relevant for studying power struggles, comparable to Cold War proxy conflicts.
