From the 2009 IBDP History Paper 2 Exam:
Analyse the successes and failures of the United Nation’s peacekeeping activities up to 1973.
The United Nations (UN), established in 1945, has been a pivotal international organisation in the maintenance of global peace and security. Its peacekeeping activities, which began in earnest in 1948 with the UN Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) in the Middle East, have been a significant part of its mandate. This essay will critically analyse the successes and failures of the UN's peacekeeping activities up to 1973, focusing on key missions such as the UNTSO, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Suez Crisis, and the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC). It will evaluate the perspectives of scholars like Guehenno, Durch, and Thakur, connecting their analyses to the main arguments of the essay.
The UNTSO, established in 1948 following the Arab-Israeli War, was the UN's first peacekeeping mission. Its primary objective was to maintain the ceasefire between Israel and its Arab neighbours. Guehenno argues that the UNTSO was a success in the sense that it established the model for future UN peacekeeping missions. The mission was based on the principles of consent, impartiality, and the non-use of force except in self-defence. These principles would become the bedrock of UN peacekeeping operations, setting a precedent for future missions. However, the UNTSO also faced significant challenges. Despite its presence, the region witnessed several wars, including the Suez Crisis in 1956 and the Six-Day War in 1967. This raises questions about the effectiveness of the UNTSO in maintaining peace and preventing conflicts. Durch, in his analysis, points out that the UNTSO was not equipped to enforce peace, but rather to observe and report violations of the ceasefire. This limitation, inherent in the design of the mission, hindered its ability to prevent conflicts.
Thakur, in his analysis, further elaborates on the limitations of the UNTSO. He argues that the mission was hampered by the lack of political will among the major powers in the Security Council. The geopolitical interests of these powers often influenced the decision-making process, leading to a lack of robust support for the mission. This, in turn, limited the effectiveness of the UNTSO in maintaining peace in the region. Despite these limitations, the UNTSO made significant contributions to peacekeeping. It provided valuable lessons for the UN in managing peacekeeping operations, particularly in terms of logistics, coordination, and the management of international forces. Furthermore, the UNTSO played a crucial role in monitoring ceasefires and preventing minor skirmishes from escalating into full-scale wars. These contributions, although often overlooked, are significant in evaluating the success of the UNTSO. In conclusion, the UNTSO had mixed results. While it was successful in establishing the model for UN peacekeeping and making significant contributions to peacekeeping practice, it was less successful in preventing conflicts due to its limited mandate and the lack of political support. This analysis provides a nuanced understanding of the successes and failures of the UN's first peacekeeping mission.
The United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Suez Crisis of 1956 represents another significant peacekeeping operation in the early years of the UN. The UNEF was established to secure and supervise the cessation of hostilities, including the withdrawal of French, British, and Israeli forces from Egyptian territory. Guehenno argues that the UNEF was a success in that it facilitated the peaceful withdrawal of foreign forces and helped to stabilise the situation in the Suez. However, the UNEF also faced significant challenges. Durch points out that the mission was dependent on the consent of the parties involved, particularly Egypt. When Egypt requested the withdrawal of the UNEF in 1967, the UN had no choice but to comply, highlighting the vulnerability of peacekeeping operations to the political will of host countries. This event led to a power vacuum in the Sinai Peninsula, setting the stage for the Six-Day War. Thakur further argues that the UNEF was limited by its mandate, which did not include the power to enforce peace or address the underlying causes of the conflict. This meant that while the UNEF was successful in managing the immediate crisis, it was unable to prevent the recurrence of conflict in the long term.
Despite these limitations, the UNEF made important contributions to the practice of peacekeeping. It was the first UN peacekeeping mission to use a large, multinational force, setting a precedent for future operations. The UNEF also demonstrated the potential of peacekeeping as a tool for crisis management, as it was able to de-escalate a major international crisis and facilitate the peaceful withdrawal of foreign forces. However, the UNEF's inability to prevent the Six-Day War underscores the limitations of peacekeeping in the face of larger geopolitical conflicts. Guehenno argues that the UNEF's withdrawal, and the subsequent outbreak of war, highlighted the need for a more robust approach to peacekeeping, including the possibility of enforcement action under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. This event marked a turning point in the evolution of UN peacekeeping, leading to a reevaluation of its principles and practices. The UNEF, like the UNTSO, had mixed results. It was successful in managing the immediate crisis and made significant contributions to the practice of peacekeeping. However, it was less successful in preventing the recurrence of conflict, due to its limited mandate and the influence of geopolitical factors.
The United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC), from 1960 to 1964, represents a significant shift in UN peacekeeping. The mission was established in response to the Congo Crisis following the country's independence from Belgium. The ONUC was tasked with a more robust mandate than previous missions, including the use of force to maintain law and order and prevent the occurrence of civil war. Guehenno argues that the ONUC was a success in that it helped to prevent the secession of Katanga and stabilised the situation in the Congo. However, the ONUC also faced significant challenges. Durch points out that the mission was marred by controversies, including the assassination of Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Congo, and allegations of bias in favour of the central government. These controversies undermined the perceived impartiality of the UN and led to questions about the effectiveness of the mission.
Thakur further elaborates on the complexities of the ONUC. He argues that the mission was caught in a difficult situation, trying to maintain peace in a country torn by political and ethnic divisions. The ONUC's robust mandate, which included the use of force, also raised questions about the principles of peacekeeping, particularly the principle of non-use of force except in self-defence. Despite these challenges, the ONUC made significant contributions to peacekeeping. It was the first UN peacekeeping mission to undertake a wide range of tasks, including military operations, civilian administration, and nation-building efforts. The ONUC also demonstrated the potential of peacekeeping in managing complex crises, providing valuable lessons for future missions. The ONUC, like the UNTSO and the UNEF, had mixed results. It was successful in preventing the secession of Katanga and stabilising the situation in the Congo. However, it faced significant challenges, including controversies over its conduct and questions about its effectiveness. These experiences underscore the complexities and challenges of UN peacekeeping, as well as its potential for managing international crises.
The analysis of the United Nation's peacekeeping activities up to 1973 reveals a complex picture of successes and failures. The UNTSO, UNEF, and ONUC each had their unique achievements and challenges. They were successful in establishing the model for UN peacekeeping, managing international crises, and making significant contributions to peacekeeping practice. However, they were less successful in preventing the recurrence of conflicts, due to their limited mandates and the influence of geopolitical factors. The perspectives of Guehenno, Durch, and Thakur provide valuable insights into these successes and failures. They highlight the complexities and challenges of peacekeeping, as well as its potential for managing international crises. Their analyses underscore the need for a nuanced understanding of UN peacekeeping, taking into account the specific contexts and constraints of each mission. In conclusion, the UN's peacekeeping activities up to 1973 were marked by both successes and failures. These experiences provide valuable lessons for the future of peacekeeping, underscoring the need for robust mandates, political support, and a nuanced understanding of the contexts in which peacekeeping operations are deployed. Despite the challenges, UN peacekeeping has demonstrated its potential as a vital tool for the maintenance of international peace and security.
